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
Where Imagination Runs Riot: A Defense of
Modern Fantasy
Annarose D. Stewart
Bard College
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WhereImaginationRunsRiot:
ADefenseofModernFantasy
SeniorProjectsubmittedto:
TheDivisionofLanguagesandLiterature
OfBardCollege
By:
AnnaroseStewart
AnnandaleOnHudson,NewYork
May2016
Acknowledgements
Thankyoutomyprofessors,familyandroommatesforbeingsounderstandingoverthecourse
ofthisproject.
ThankyoutoAlexKoditschekforkeepingmesane.
ThankyoutomyadvisorsNancyLeonardandBradfordMorrowforhelpingmegetthroughmy
careeratBard.
ThankyoutoColeHeinowitzandMariaCecireforhelpwithfindingsources.
ThankyoutoJeremyHallandBetsyCrowleyforhelpwithresearchandcitations.
Thankyoutomyfatherforhelpingmewithlastminutefixes.
Thankyoutomyboardmembersforputtinginthetimetoreadanddiscussmywork.
Butmostofall,thankyoutoKarenSullivan.Thisprojectwouldnotexistwithoutyou.
TableofContents
Introduction
:Let’sTrytoMakeaStoryAboutIt 1
Chapter1:
MovingtheMagic 7
TheHumanWorld 12
TheWorldofMarvels 16
ThePoeticLanguage 21
TheVisualText 24
ReviewsandLetters 26
Conclusion 30
Chapter2:
FantasyGravitatedtotheNurseryWhenitWentOutofFashion 33
LawsofExistence 36
UseofImagery 41
OralityoftheStory 46
ReviewsandLetters 52
Conclusion 55
Chapter3:
WhenWeTaketheGreenfromGrassOurMindAwakes 59
LawsofExistence 60
UseofImagery 64
OralityoftheStory 69
ReviewsandLetters 76
Conclusion 79
Conclusion:
ModernFantasy101:ImaginationUnlimited 85
FiguresReferenced 89
WorksConsulted 93
1
Introduction
Let’sTrytoMakeaStoryAboutIt
Oneevening,J.R.R.Tolkienwasgradingessaysforoneofhisclassesandhestumbled
uponablankpieceofpaperthathadmadeitintothepile.Withoutthinking,Tolkienwrotedown
thefirstthingthatcametohismind:“Inaholeinthegroundtherelivedahobbit.”(TheHobbit)
Tolkienadmitshehadnoideawhatahobbitwasorwhytheyhavetoliveunderground,buthe
decidedtoinvestigatefurther.Indoingso,hewroteoneofthemostfamoustrilogiesofalltime:
TheLordoftheRings.
Thistextwasbuiltfromalinguisticstudy,whichleadtoanextensive
history,whichleadtoanincrediblestory.Thistrilogyredefinedfantasyandbroughttolightthe
sophisticationandscholarshipthatcanbebroughttothegenre.However,thiswasnotthe
beginningoffantasyitself.
Inhisessay“OnFairyStories”,Tolkiendiscussestheconnectionbetweenfantasyand
language.Tolkienarguesthatfantasywasdevelopedatthebeginningoflanguageitself.“The
mindthatthoughtoflight,heavy,grey,yellow,still,swift
alsoconceivedofmagicthatwould
makeheavythingslightandabletofly,turngreyleadintoyellowgold,andthestillrockinto
swiftwater”(Tolkien122).Tolkienexplorestheideathatonceanobjectislabeledwithan
adjective,itallowsforthepossibilityofthefantastic.Whenonelabelsthecolorofgrass‘green’
andthecolorofsky‘blue’thenthepossibilityofgreenskyandbluegrassisalsoconceived.
Oncehumanitygivesalabel,thenitpresentshumanswiththeopportunitytochangethelabelas
itisseparatefromtheinnatestateoftheobject.Theinventionofwordsallowedforhumansto
beginfulfillingtheirdesiretomake.Whentheyassignbluetograssorgreentosky,theyhave
createdtheconceptforaworldinwhichgrassisblueandtheskyisgreen.Therefore,thebirthof
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fantasydidnothappenwhenaparticularstorywastoldbutoccurredfiveminutesaftertheorigin
oflanguageitself.
Agenresointerconnectedwithhumanity’sinnatedesiresanditsformofcommunication
wouldseemtoholdapaceofveneration,butthisisnotso.Atacertainpointintime,humans
begantobelievethattheykneweverythingabouttheirworld.Theylearnedthattheworldis
roundandtheEarthisnotthecenteroftheuniverse.Astheyexploredtheworld,theylearned
thatdragonsdonotexistandscienceseemedtoprovethatthereisnoanimalthatcanhavefour
legsandwingssimultaneously.Ashumansbegantolearn,theirworldfilledwithbluegrassand
agreenskyseemedchildishandnaive.Storieswerenolongertoldofknightsanddragonsbutof
sophisticatedsocialiteswhocouldexistintheworldhumanityknewsomuchabout.Magicwas
takenovercomebyscience;dragonsmorphedintoaliens.
Duringthistransitionanargumentwasmadeclaimingthatfantasyisescapist;thatwhen
onereadsorthinksofheroesanddragonsoneisavoidingreality.Thisevenleadstothe
assumptionthatifoneconsciouslychosetoreadfantasyinsteadofrealisticnovelsoneis
claimingthatrealityisnotasbeautifulasfantasy.ThelatterisarguedbyGeorgeEliot.Inher
book,AdamBede,
shedefendsrealismbyimplyingthatpeoplewhoenjoyfantasyandromance
struggletoseethebeautyinreality.“Thepencilisconsciousofadelightfulfacilityindrawinga
griffin—thelongertheclaws,andthelargerthewings,thebetter;butthatmarvellousfacility
whichwemistookforgeniusisapttoforsakeuswhenwewanttodrawarealunexaggerated
lion”(234).Inthispassage,Eliotisimplyingthatenjoyingandwritingfantasysomehowinhibits
theabilitytoseeandrepresentthebeautyinreality.However,fantasydoesnotdiscreditor
belittlereality;itgivestheopportunityforimaginationtoflourishwithoutlimitofthephysical
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boundariesthatexistinreality.Eliotclaimsthattheartistryindrawingagriffinis“mistookas
genius”.Theideathatwritingfantasyiseasywasprovedfalsebyeveryfantasywritersince.
Fantasyhashadtofighttobegivenworthinitself;fantasticaltextsareinterpretedasallegories
forrealityorarelabeledaschildren’sliterature.Writingfantasythatstandsonitsownis
absolutelynoteasy.
WhenwritingaboutVictorianEngland,GeorgeEliotmerelyhadtocreatecharacterswho
shemostlikelywasabletobaseonpeoplesheknew.However,acclaimedfantasywriterslike
WilliamMorris,C.S.LewisandJ.R.R.Tolkienhadtocreateentireworldsbeforetheyeven
begantowritetheirstory.Tolkiencreatedanentirehistoryofhisworld,completewithmultiple
languagesbeforehebegantoinventcharacterslikeFrodoandSam.Tolkienhadtobuildaworld
beforehearrivedattheplacewhereGeorgeEliotbeganherwork.Eliotseemstohave
misinterpretednaturalaseasy;itisnoteasytocreatefantasybutitisnatural.Fantasycamewith
thebeginningoflanguageitself;fantasizingisasnaturaltohumansasspeaking.Fantasizingis
oneofthemostnaturaleventsthathumanscanparticipatein.
In
“OnFairyStories”,Tolkienexplainsthestagesofcreatingfantasy.Thefirstofthese
stagesisImagination.Imaginationisderivedfromthewordimage;itistheabilitytoform
mentalimagesofdifferentthings“Butinrecenttimes,intechnicalnotnormallanguage,
Imaginationhasoftenbeenheldtobesomethinghigherthanthemereimagemaking”(Tolkien
138).TolkienbelievesthatthedefinitionofImaginationmustreturntotheorigin:human’s
abilitytoconceiveofmentalimages.ThenextstageofFantasyaccordingtotolkienis
Expressionwhichgives“toidealcreationstheinnerconsistencyofreality”(138).Expressionis
givinglifetotheimaginedimagessothattheseimagesformtocreateanexistencesincere
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enoughtobebelieved.TheachievementofthisexpressioniscalledArt.Artis“theoperative
linkbetweenImaginationandthefinalresult,Subcreation”(139).Subcreationisexactlywhat
itsoundslike,itisthecreationofaworldthatisasextensiveandbelievableasreality,butisnot
real.Theproductofthisprocessandthedrivingforcebehinditisencompassedintheword:
Fantasy,which“embrace[s]boththeSubcreativeArtinitselfandaqualityofstrangenessand
wonderintheExpression,derivedfromtheImage”(139).TheSubcreativeArtistheworldthat
iscreatedandthe“qualityofstrangenessandwonder”istheessenceoftheexperienceofreading
fantasy.
Becauseofthisfoundation,TolkienarguesthatFantasyisthepurestartformbecauseitis
themostdirectlyrelatedtoImagination.TolkienarguesthatFantasybecomesmisinterpretedas
dreamingandhallucination,thefirstofwhichwasEliot’sinterpretation.Eliotbelievesthat
Fantasytakesawayfromthebeautyofrealitybypresentingseeminglysuperiorpossibilities;
Fantasy’sgoalisnottopresentthereaderwithanalternativetorealityitisanexerciseinthe
beautyandpowerofthehumanimagination.ForFantasytobesuccessfulithastobeunderstood
withouthavingtosuspenddisbelief;however,itisnotintendedtobeasuperiorreality.Instead
ofsubtractingorescapingfromthebeautyandharshnessoftheworld,“Itawakensandenlarges
theminditselfbyrenderingitthereceptacleofathousandunapprehendedcombinationsof
thought…[it]liftstheveilfromthehiddenbeautyoftheworld,andmakesfamiliarobjectsbeas
iftheywerenotfamiliar”(Shelley).Thewordswrittenindefenceofpoetry,applytotheway
thatfantasyfunctionsaswell.Fantasydoesnottakeawayfromthebeautyofrealitybutopens
mindstoanewwayofseeingtheworld.
5
Somemaysaythatthepurposeofliteratureistoexamineorunderstandahighertruth
thatcannotbeexplainedthroughanyothermedium.Literaturemayhaveevolvedtofulfillthat
purposebutthatpurposewasnotpresentattheorigin.Storyoriginatedasawaytoentertainand
bringpeopletogether.Thisistheelementofliterature,whichfantasyhascontinued.Everyother
genreofliteratureclaimsahighertruth,eitheramoraloratimeperiodoraworld,butfantasy
doesnotmakethisclaim.Instead,itsubsistsmerelyonthebeautyoftheimage.Theworthof
fantasyisnotfoundedinitsabilitytoteachitsreaderbuttoentertain.Thisaestheticoffantasyis
whatkeepsitfrombeingtakenseriously;itisseenasawasteofacademictime.Thereisso
muchthatcanbestudiedinthefantasygenre:allegories,influences,commentary,juxtaposition
etc.Thereissomuchthatfantasycangivetotheacademiccommunitybutfirst,whatneedstobe
understood,isthatfantasydoesnotneedtheseinterpretationstobevaluable.Afantasticaltext
shouldnotneedtobehundredsofyearsoldtobetakenseriously.Thefirststeptounderstanding
fantasyistoacknowledgethatfantasydoesnotneedacademiatosurvive.Theinherentworthof
thesetextsisthemasteryoftheworldandtheexperiencethereaderhaslivinginit.Academia
strugglestounderstandatextthathasworthwithoutbeinganalyzed.Onceacademiaunderstands
howmuchpotentialthesetextshave,thentheycanbegintodissectthemanylevelsof
interpretationavailableinthesestories.
Thisprojectwillusethreevitalfantasticalworkstodiscoverthreedifferentwaysthat
fantasticaltextscanbeinterpretedandanalyzed.Eachelementwillshowdifferentqualitiesof
thegenreasawholeandwilldemonstratehowthetextscanbeunderstoodinanacademic
setting.Throughthisanalysis,boththeacademicworthandtheinherentvalueofthetextswill
becomeapparent.Toachievethisendtherearetermsthatneedtobedefined.
6
Inthisessay,therearetwodifferentwordsthatwillbeusedtoexplainmagical
phenomenon:marvelandmagic.Forthepurposeofthisessay,marvelisasupernaturalobjector
being:itisanoun.Magicisasupernaturalactthatabeingdoes:itisanaction.Anexampleofa
marvelisanelforamagicringoratalkingbeaver.Anexampleofmagicwouldbeturningalion
intostone,orbringingflowersbacktolife,orturningapersoninvisible.
Eachofthefollowingchaptersarededicatedtoaspecifictext.Thefirstchapterfocuses
onTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
byWilliamMorris.ThischapteranalyzesthewaythatMorris
buildshisworldtoserveasabackgroundforhishigherconcerns:remindinghisreadersofhow
itfelttoreadamedievalromanceandtoreestablishthebeautyofpuremagicinaworldthathas
beendisenchanted.ThesecondchapterfocusesonTheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobe
by
C.S.Lewis.Itinvestigatestheconnectionbetweenfantasyandchildren’sliterature.Lewis’s
workalsoservesasabeautifulexampleofhowfantasycanbeallegoricalwithoutlosingthe
inherentbeautyoftheworlditdescribes.Thethirdandfinalchapter,analyzesTheFellowshipof
theRing
byJ.R.R.Tolkien.Thistextexemplifieshowcomplexandmasterfulfantasycanbe.
Tolkiendemonstratesthatbyfullyunderstandingthewaythatthegenrefunctions,itispossible
tocreateaworldsodetailedandwellconstructedthatthefinalresultisjustshyofreality.This
essaywillprovethatfantasydoesnottakeawayfromreality,itsimplyallowsthemindto
investigateotherpossibilities.
7
Chapter1
MovingtheMagic
Fantasy,asanestablishedgenre,hasbeenaroundforlessthan100years.However,this
isnothowlongfantasticalliteraturehasexisted.ThetermfantasyappliestothegenreModern
Fantasythatreallycameintofruitioninthe1950’swithJ.R.R.Tolkien’sthreevolumework
TheLordoftheRings
.However,itisimpossibletodefinewhenthistypeofliteratureoriginated.
PerhapsitwasinventedbyWilliamMorriswhowrotethefirstsecondworldfantasticalprose
narrative.ButbeforehimtherewasFrankenstein
byMaryShelley
andevenearlier:Gulliver’s
Travels
byJonathanSwift.BeforethesetextstherewasalsoTheFaerieQueene
byEdmund
Spenser
whichwasprecededbyOrlandoFurioso
byLudovicoAriosto.Whichare,themselves,
comingfromtheArthuriantraditionwithtextslikeSirGawainandtheGreenKnight
.Butthese
wereinfluencedbyoldenglishtaleslikeBeowulf
.Andeveryfantasticaltextwrittenafterthe500
bceisinfluencedbytheHomerictradition.Thisdemonstratesthattheoriginsofthisgenreare
impossibletofind.
Romance,nowknownasChivalricRomancetodistinguishitfrommodernromance
novels,ischaracterizedbymanydifferentelements.TypicallyaChivalricRomancewould
includeknightsonaquestandusuallyinvolvedaaristocraticloveaffair.Thisfocusonchivalry
andcourtlinessistypicallywhatcharacterizesaromance.However,manyromancesinclude
fantasticelementsormarvels.Thesemarvelscanbeintegraltotheplotorjustincludedinashort
scene.TheGreenKnightinSirGawainandtheGreenKnight
isanexampleofamarvelbecause
heisabletogethisheadchoppedoffandstilllive.However,sometimesthereislessemphasis
onthemarvellikeinLancelotandtheCart
byChretiendeTroyeswhereadwarfappearsand
8
testsLancelot’sloveforGuinevere.Thesemarvelsarenotquestionedbythecharactersinthe
story,theyareacceptedanddealtwithaccordingly.Thecharacter’sacceptanceofmagicinthe
humanworldiswhatgivesromancestheirbadreputationaftertheenlightenment.
Sinceaboutthe1500’s,fantasticalliteraturehasnotgainedthepraisethatitdeserves.
ThroughouttheEnlightenmentperiod,longformfantasticalworks,typicallycalledromances,
werefrowneduponandconsideredlowliterature.Oneofthemostfamoustextsfromthisera,
DonQuixote,
isaboutamanwhogetssoobsessedwithromancesthathegoesinsaneand
believesheislivinginone.
Afterthescientificrevolutiontheworldbecamelessmagical.Peoplestoppedbelieving
oldstoriesandfolklore.Therewerenewscientificreasonsforpreviouslymagicalphenomena.
Thistrendisreferredtoas‘disenchantment’,awordcoinedbyFriedrichSchillerbutputinto
practicebyMaxWeberfamouslyinalecturegivenin1917.“Thefateofourtimesis
characterizedbyrationalizationandintellectualization,andaboveallbythe‘disenchantmentof
theworld’”(Smith).Thiswasahardhitforromances,whichrelyonthemagicoftheworld.
Peoplebeganconsideringthemnaiveandjuvenile.Romancesdidnotstopbeingread,butthey
becameguiltypleasuresreadinthecornerofalibraryandnotopenlytalkedaboutinupstanding
societyeventhoughmanypeoplewerereadingthem.
Duringthelatenineteenthcentury,therewasasurgeofgenrefictionthattookdifferent
elementsofromancesandalteredthemtobemorerealistic.Adventurestoriesbecamepopular,
likeRobertLouisStevenson’sbooks,thattooktheplotofromancesandremovedthemagic
leavingtheaudiencewithanamazingquestnarrativesthatcouldtechnicallyhappeninreality.
Therewasalsoariseinsupernaturalgothicnovelswhereauthorstendedtoseparatethemselves
9
fromthetext.InTurnoftheScrew
,
HenryJamesseparateshimselftwofoldfromhisstory.He
usesaframingdeviceofstorytellingandalso,thestoryissaidtobeadiaryofagoverness.This
preventstheauthorfromtakingresponsibilityofthesupernaturalelementsofthetextand
providesthegoverness’ssanityasanexcuse.Adifferenttypeofexcuseisusedinsciencefiction
wherethefantasticalelementsareexplainedawaywithscience.H,G,Wells,playedalargepart
inmakingthisinterpretationpopular.BooksofhislikeTheWaroftheWorlds
andalsobooksby
otherauthorslikeFrankenstein
byMaryShelley,usescienceasanexcuseformagicand
marvels.TheWaroftheWorlds
usessciencetoexcusetheuseofotherspeciesandspaceships.
Frankenstein
usessciencetoexcuseasuperhumanmonster.Whilemedievalromanceseemedto
havedisappeared,therewassomeonewhowastryingtokeepitalive:WilliamMorris.
WilliamMorrisisamanofmanytalents:asuccessfultextiledesigner,author,translator
andsocialactivist.Whilethesedifferenttitlesseemunconnectedtherewasacommonthreadof
logicandprinciplesthroughoutMorris’swork:conservation,accessibilityandtheneedtomake
lifebeautiful.ThecombinationoftheseprincipleswasevidentinMorris’stextilework.He
wantedeverythinginhislifetobebothusefulandbeautifulandhefocusedhisenergyonthe
objectsinhishouse.Oneofhismostfamouscreations,thatisstillmanufactured,istheMorris
chair.Thisreclinablechairisnotonlystunningbutalsopracticalforbothworkandrelaxation.
Hisobsessionwithbeautyalsoleadhimtomanypursuitsinconservation,focusingmainlyon
architecture.HefoundedtheSocietyfortheProtectionofAncientBuildingsorSPAB.This
focusonconservationseemstohaveflowedoverintohisliterarypursuitsattheendofhislife.
Inthe1890’swhenMorris’shealthwasdeclining,hebeganwritingwhatarenowknownashis
ProseRomances.
10
TheProseRomanceswereunusualbecausenoonewaswritingnewmedievalstyle
romancesatthispointintime.Earlierinthenineteenthcenturytherewasanewsurgeof
Arthurianlegends,whichleadtotheIdyllsoftheKing
byAlfredLordTennyson.
While
Arthurianromancesseemtohavegainedmorepopularity,othertypesofromanceswith
fantasticalelementswerenolongerwrittenexceptforMorris’sProseRomances.However,the
mostinfluentialaspectofanyofMorris’sworkisthatheinventedotherworldsforhisstoryto
takeplace.Hisproseromancewrittenin1894,TheWoodBeyondtheWorld
,isthefirst
secondworldfantasyproseromancewritteninEnglish.Indoingthis,hewasabletoconserve
thefantasticalnatureofromanceswhilewritingforanenlightenedaudience.Bymovingthe
magictoanotherworld,hisstorywasnotatwarwiththeculture'sobsessionwithempiricism,
whichstatesthatallknowledgecomesfromexperience.Thefocusonexperiencemadeit
difficultforpeopletobelieveinmagicintheirworld.Unlikeotherauthorswhousedrealismand
sciencetohidethemagicalelementsoftheirtext,Morrissimplymovedthemagictoaplace
wherethelogicoftheworldacceptedthefantasticalphenomena.
Thisdecisionopenedadoorforcountlessfantasywritersafterhimandpavedthewayfor
themodernfantasygenretobeestablished.TwowriterswhowereinfluencedbyMorris’s
writingswereC.S.LewisandJ.R.R.Tolkien,twoauthorsthatpracticallydefinethegenreof
modernfantasy.Placingthesethreeauthorssidebysideitiscleartoseetheevolutionoftheway
thatfantasyfunctions.TheWoodBeyondtheWorld
isdifferentthantheworkfromeitherof
thesetwolaterauthors,becauseitfunctionslikeprosepoetry.TheWoodBeyondtheWorld
is
influencedbymedievalromances,butitseemsalmostthatMorristookthemarvelsfrom
romancesandplacedtheminaworldoftheirown.Thismarvelousworld,isthesettingofa
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beautifulprosepoemthatexpressestheessenceofmarvelsastheywerefoundinmedieval
romances.ThepoeticalnatureofthistextallowsforMorristofocusonthematicissuesrather
thanissuesofplotandcharacter.InthefirstsectionofthestorywhenWalter,themaincharacter,
isinthehumanworld,thecharacters’motivationsandrelationshipsarecleartothereader.
However,whenhepassesintotheworldofmarvels,theplotbecomeslessimportant.Thisis
whenMorrisbeginstouselanguageandlogicfrompoeticromances.
Anothercharacteristicofthistextthatseparatesitfrommanyotherfantasticalworksis
theliterarynatureofthetext.Fantasticalliteraturestemsfromanoraltraditionthatcanbetraced
backtotheoriginsofliteratureitself.However,Morris’stextisnoticeablytextual.Allofits
elements,fromthevisualnatureofthebookitselftothelanguageusedremindthereaderhow
thisbookisabook.Thenonoralityofthetextisreflectedinthepoetry;thelackofdefinable
narrativeemphasizesthatthebookshouldbeseenandnotheard.Oraltextsareactionbased
becauseitisdifficulttofollowcomplexideasorpoeticalanalogieswhenyouarelisteningtoa
text.ThepoeticalelementsofMorris’stextemphasizesthatthefocusisnottheplotorthestory
buttheessenceofromance.
ThedifferencebetweenstoryandpoetrycanclearlybeseeninthewaythatMorriswrites
aboutWalter’sjourney.ThestoryfollowsabasicnarrativestructurewhileWalterisinthe
humanworld.However,whenhetravelstothenewworldtheplotbecomeslessclear.The
charactersdonothavenamesandtheirhistoryisneverexplained.Thefocusofthissectionison
themarvelsandtheattractionsbetweenWalterandtheMaidortheLady.
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TheHumanWorld
In“TheFantasticImagination”,GeorgeMacDonalddiscussesthebalanceoflogicin
fantasyworlds.Hedescribeshowtheauthor,onceaworldiscreated,muststandbyasetofrules
orlawthatdefineshisnewlycreatedworld.“Tobeabletoliveamomentinanimaginedworld,
wemustseethelawsofitsexistenceobeyed”(65).Theaudiencecannotplacethemselvesina
worldthattheydonotunderstand;ifthelogicofaworldisnotfollowedthenthediscordant
eventspullthereaderoutoftheworldandruintheirsuspensionofdisbelief.
The‘lawofexistence’establishesanorm,whichisthefoundationofanystory.What
makesastoryinterestingisconflict.Withinastory,conflictistheupsetoftheeverydayorthe
norm;withoutconflictthereisnostory.Inaddition,tohaveaconflictthereneedstobeanorm
establishedtoupset.Therefore,whenMacDonaldwritesofthe‘lawsofexistence’heis
acknowledgingtheneedforanestablishednormforanyformofconflicttoarise.Withoutan
establishednorm,theaudiencewouldnotrecognizeaconflictandtherefore,therewouldbeno
story.
Whenwritingrealisticfiction,itnotaspressingtoestablishanormbecausealarge
portionofthenormiswhattheaudiencewouldalreadyknowfromlivinginsociety.However,
thisnormisstillnecessarybecauseifoneislivinginmoderndayEnglandandreadingabout
sixteenthcenturyIndia,onemightnotknowhoweverydaypeoplewouldfunctionorwhatthey
wouldconsiderabnormal.However,inbothsocieties,ifapersonstartsflyingthroughtheair,or
isabletorejuvenateflowersthathavewiltedanddied,thiswouldbeconsideredsupernatural.
Thisisnottrueoffantasticalliterature;whenwritingaboutaworldthathasbeencreatedforthe
purposeofaparticularstory,onehastoestablishwhetherflyingpeoplearenormalorabnormal
13
forthatworld.Perhaps,flyingisthenormbutwalkingisconsideredincredibleandwhen
someonestepsonthegroundtheyareconsideredtobesupernatural.Becauseoftheaudience’s
lackofknowledgeaboutthenormalcyofaworldinwhichtheydonotlive,theauthoroffantasy
hastobemorethoroughanddetailedaboutwhatisnormalintheirworld.TheWoodBeyondthe
World
doesnotnecessarilyreachaharmoniousbalancebetweenwhattheaudienceknows,and
whathemustconveyabouttheworldthroughthetext.
Thefirstsectionofthestorytakesplaceinthehumanworld,andthereforedoesnotneed
muchexposition.Walter,themaincharacter,encountersproblemsthatneednoexplanation
becausetheaudiencealreadyunderstandsthattheeventsconflictwiththeirnorm.Waltermarries
abeautifulwomanwhohebelievesloveshim,butquicklyoverthecourseofsixmonthsitis
clearthatshehateshim.Thisconflict,isobvioustothereaderwithoutmuchdescription.The
normisforamarriedcoupletoloveeachother;therefore,thefactthatWalter’swifehateshimis
aconflict,whichmakesWaltermiserable.
Becauseofthisconflict,Walterleaveshometoescapehismisery.Overthecourseofhis
journey,Walterhasthreevisionsofthesamethreeextraordinarycharacters.Thefirsttimethat
Walterseesthem,itisdescribedingreatdetail.Thecharactersarenotintroducedaspeople;in
fact,theauthoravoidscallingthemanythingandreferstothemsimplyas“thesewerethree”(6).
Thecharactersarenotdescribedasmagical,butaredistinctfromanyothercharacterinthestory
becauseofthedepthandnatureoftheirdescriptions.Thisisthefirsttimeinthetextthatany
character’sappearanceisdescribedingreatdetail.EvenWalter’sappearanceismerelydescribed
asa“fairfacedman,yellowhaired,tallandstrong”(TheWoodBeyondtheWorld
,1972,1).In
contrast,thefirstcharacterofthevisionisdescribedingreatdetail.Thedwarfisdescribedas
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“darkbrownofhue&hideous,withlongarms&earsexceedinggreatanddogteeththatstuck
outlikethefangsofawildbeast”(TheWoodBeyondtheWorld,
1972,6).Thiscreatureis
clearlydifferentfromalltheothercharacterssofarinthetext;heisdescribedingreatdetail,and
thedescriptionspointoutallthecharacteristicsofthedwarfthatdifferfromatypicalhuman.
Eventhoughtheauthordoesnotexpressthehumanlikecharacteristicsofthecreature,
theyareimpliedthroughtwospecificwords:dwarfandarms.Theworddwarfimpliesahuman
creaturethatisofshorterstature.Therearemanydifferentdwarvesinterpretedinliterature,but
therearealwayshumancreaturesthatareshorterthanthetypicalhuman.Inadditiontothis,the
humanimageisreinforcedbytheworld‘arm’.Thereareveryfewcreaturesotherthanhumans
thathavearms,andthewordarmimpliesthatthecreatureiswalkingontwolegs,ratherthan
crawlingoranyothermovement.Whiletheauthordetailsthewaysinwhichthedwarflooks
differentfromatypicalhuman,thereisnoneedtodescribethewaysinwhichtheyaresimilar
becausethatisassumedinthelanguagethattheauthoruses.
Thesecondofthethreecharactersisstillgivenmoredescriptionthanwasgivento
Walter,butsheseemstobehuman.Sheislabeledasamaidenandtheelementsofherphysique
thattheauthorchoosestofocusonarehumantraits:“greyeyed,brownhaired,withlipsfull&
red,slimandgentleofbody”(TheWoodBeyondtheWorld
,1972,7).Whilethesetraitsare
clarified,theyarenotdescribedindetail.Theonlyelementsofherphysicalcharacteristicsthat
weredescribedaretheelementsthatshiftfrompersontoperson.Itisnotstatedthatshehastwo
eyesorwhatshapetheyare,theauthormerelydescribestheircolor.Unlikethedwarf,thelength
ofherarmsortheshapeofherteetharenotexaminedbecausethenatureofherarmsandteeth
15
arenotimportant.Theassumedimagethatthereaderwouldhaveofaslimmaiden’sarmsis
accurateenoughthattheauthordoesnotfeelthatitrequiresextradescription.
ThethirddescriptiondoesnotdetailanyparticularpartoftheLady’sphysique.Instead,
therearesweepingexpressionsofherstateliness:“soradiantofvisage&gloriousofraiment,
thatitwerehardtosaywhatlikeshewas”(TheWoodBeyondtheWorld,
1972,7).This
characterisbeyonddescription;Morrisdoesnotseparatehertraitsandanalyzethemlikehedid
withhertwocompanions.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatthereadercannotpictureher;the
word‘lady’impliesafemalehumanwhoisupperclassandsophisticated.Theseconceptsare
supportedbytheotherdescriptors:tall,stately,radiant,gloriousofraiment,andbeauty.The
Ladyistallandstately,whichimpliesanelegantgraceandfeelingofimportance.Her
descriptionasradiantandherclothingpaintapictureofarichupperclasswomanwhohasa
beautifulcomplexion.Unliketheothercreatures,nothingaboutherpersonisspecifiedbesides
herheight,thereforesheistheepitomeofwhatthereaderbelievesisaperfectlady.
EventhoughthedescriptionofboththeLadyandtheDwarfseemtoimplysomekindof
abnormality,thereisnoexplicitmagicatworkduringthefirstvision.Walterseesthree
interestingcharactersgettingonaboatatthedocks.However,onhiswayhomefromtheharbor,
Walterseesthesethreeagain.Thisisthereader’sfirstexposuretosomethingcompletelyoutof
theordinary.Thesecondvisionisanothereventthatisclearlyagainstthenorm.Whilethe
miserableconditionthatWalterhaswithhiswifeisaconflict,itisaconflictagainstthenormof
relationships;thesecondvisionisthefirsttimewherethereaderisexposedtoaconflictagainst
thenormoftheworld.Itisthefirstpointwherefantasymakesitswayintothestory:it“seemed
foramomentoftimethathebeheldthosethreecomingoutdownthestepsofstoneintothe
16
street..hestoodstilltoabidetheircomingandlookedtowardthem,lo!therewasnothingbefore
him”(TheWoodBeyondtheWorld
,1972,9).Inthismoment,Walterisunawarewhetherthe
charactersare‘childrenofAdam’orsimplyfromadream.For,heseesthemonland,nearhis
house,whenhehadjustwatchedthemsailawayfromtheharbor.Inadditiontotheodd
circumstances,Walter’simageofthemvanisheswhentheyareabouttoapproachhim.This
impliesthatheisseeingavisionofthem.ItisyetunclearwhetherthisvisionisfromWalter’s
imaginationorthroughsomeotherforce.However,whatiscleartothereaderthatthistypeof
visionisnotnormalandeitherWalterisbeginningtogocrazy,orthereissomething
extraordinaryhappening.
TheWorldofMarvels
OnceWalterembarksonhisjourney,itisclearthathecannotletgooftheimageofthose
threecharacters.Thisobsessiongrowswhenheseesthethreeyetagainonhisjourney.However,
hisdreamsofadventurearecrushedwhenWalterhearsthathisfatherhasbeenkilledbyhis
wife’sfamily.Becauseofthisconflict,Walterneedstotravelbackhometosettlehisfather’s
accountsandpossiblytoavengehisfather’smurder.However,agreatstormhitstheshipand
theyarethrowncompletelyoffcourse.Theyfinallyarriveatashorethattheydonotrecognize.
Astheshipapproachesthisnewland,theynoticethatthelandlookshabitableandtheonlything
thatseemsstrangeis“theyknewnocausewhythatlandshouldnotbebuilded,thoughitwerein
thefaroutlands”(TheWoodBeyondtheWorld,
1972,27).Thisconfusionisthefirstsignthat
somethingisoutoftheordinary.
Whenamancomesoutoftheonlyhouseandapproachesthemheexplainsthatheisthe
onlyhumanor‘sonofAdam’inthatland.Themanthengoesontomentiontheothercreatures
17
wholiveinthisland:the‘Bears’.“Astotheirbodilyfashion,itisaltogethermanlike,savethat
theybeoneandallhigherandbiggerthanmost.Fortheybebearsonlyinname;theybeanation
ofhalfwildmen”(29).ThephysiqueoftheBearsisclearlyestablished:theyarewildmenthat
aremuchlargerthantheaveragehuman;indeed,theBearsaresimplygiants.Again,becausethe
Bearsaredescribedasmanlikethereisnoneedtogointodetailaboutwhattheylooklike.Itis
notnecessarytospecifyotheraspectsoftheirphysique,likewasnecessarywiththeDwarf,
becausethereader’simageofaman,beitanabnormallylargeman,issufficient.
Soonafterarriving,Walterdesirestoexplorethelanditselfandabandonstheshipand
crewtotravelthroughapassinthemountains.Aftertravelingforafewdays,Walterhearsan
incrediblenoise:“astrangenoiseofroaringandbraying,notverygreat,butexceedingfierceand
terrible,andnotliketothevoiceofanybeastthatheknew”(TheWoodBeyondtheWorld
,1972,
54).Thisnoiseisclearlynotasoundthatonewouldencounterinthehumanworldbecause
Walterclarifiesthatitisnotasoundthatcouldbemadefromabeastthatheknows.However,
thesoundisdescribedintermsofwhattheaudiencewouldalreadyknow‘roaring’and
‘braying’.Thisfollowsthelogicthatthereaderwasintroducedtowhenthemandiscussesthe
Bears:thisworldhascreaturesthatdonotexistinthehumanworld.
ShortlyafterWalterhearsthenoise,thedwarfappears“whoseimagehehadseenbefore”
(TheWoodBeyondtheWorld,
1972,55).Itseemsthatthisisnotanothervisionbecausethe
dwarfbeginstospeak:“thedwarfsentoutthatfearfulharshvoiceagain;butthistimeWalter
couldmakeoutwordstherein&knewthatthecreaturespoke”(TheWoodBeyondtheWorld
,
1972,55).Thestructureofthisdescriptionimpliesthatthedwarfismakingthesamehorrible
noisebutnowWaltercanunderstandhim.ItisunclearhowWaltercanunderstandthenoise
18
now,theuseoftheword‘knew’seemstoimplythatthecreatureisnotspeakingwordsbut
Waltercanunderstandhim.Thereseemstohavebeensomesortoftranslationbetweenthefirst
noiseandthesecond,becausenowWaltercanunderstandthedwarf.
OnceWalterarrivesatthisnewworld,itisnecessaryfortheauthortoestablisha‘lawof
existence’otherwisetheplotmaybelost.Thisseemstobetheproblemthatoccursduring
Walter’sstayatthehouseoftheLady.Thefocusofthetextseemstobeonthemarvelsofthe
worldandthebeautyofthemagic.However,becauseofthelackoflogicalfoundation,itis
difficulttofollowthebasicrelationshipsbetweenthecharacters;therefore,thespecificitiesof
theplotgetlost.Thereisanotherforceatworkhere.Morrisseemstobeusingthisworldandthe
plottoengagewithagrandertheme:theconservationofhowmagicfunctionedinromances.
ThroughtheuseofthelanguageandthewaythatMorrisdesignedthetexttolooklikean
illuminatedmanuscript,itseemsthatMorrisistryingtorevitalizetheessenceofhowmarvels
existedinromances.
Inhisessay‘“OnStories”,C.S.Lewisdiscusseshowstoriesareameanstoanend;the
authorwritesastorybecauseitisthebestwaytoconveyaconceptorideaheneedstodealwith.
Lewiswrites:
Tobestoriesatalltheymustbeseriesofevents:butitmustbeunderstoodthat
thisseriestheplot
,aswecallitisonlyreallyanetwherebytocatchsomething
else.Therealthememaybe,andperhapsusuallyis,somethingthathasno
sequenceinit,somethingotherthanaprocessandmuchmorelikeastateor
quality.(18)
19
Theemphasisonthemeisnecessarytoexpresstheoverarchingmeaningofthetext.Thistheme
illustrateswhatmotivatedtheauthortowritethisstory.InTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
,Morris
seemstohaveextractedthemostmarvelouselementsofromancesandplacedtheminaworldof
theirown.Histhemeherebeingtheconservationoftheessenceofmarvelinmedievalromances.
However,whenaddressingbothMacdonald’sargumentforthenecessityofthe‘lawsof
existence’andLewis’sargumentonthenecessityforclarityoftheoverarchingtheme,it
becomesobviousthatthereneedstobeabalance.
Thenecessityofanoverarchingthemethatgivesweightandpurposetoatextcannotbe
discredited.Thiselementofauthorshipcanbevitaltoapieceofliterature.However,whenthere
isnofoundationforthisthemetoreston,iftheplotisnotpresentenoughtosupportthismotif,
thenthereaderwillnothaveaccesstothetheme.Theplotandcharacterrelationshipsisthetool
throughwhichthereaderisabletounderstandandappreciatethetheme.AsC.S.Lewiswrites
theplotisa‘netwherebytocatchsomethingelse’.Theplotisnotnecessarilythefocusofthe
textbutifthereisno‘net’thereisnohopeonunderstandingtheoverarchingtheme.
OnceWalterenterstheLady’shouse,Morrisdoesnothavetheluxuryofrelyingon
Englishnormsanymore.Thislackofestablishmentbecomesglaringlyapparentwhenthereader
attemptstodeciphertherelationshipsbetweenthefourcharactersthatWalterencountersatthe
house.Relationshipsbetweencharactersarecrucialelementsofastory;inrealisticfiction,
relationshipsarethefoundationoftheplot.However,thewaythatMorrischosetodisplayand
usethecharactersandthemarvelsofthestory,makeitdifficulttounderstandtheintricaciesof
theplot.
20
Thereisaspecificwaythatmarvelsfunctionedinmedievalromances.Marvelswould
existinthecontextoftherealworld,typicallyEnglandorFrance.Theywouldbeapartofthe
journeyoranobstacleonthehero’squest.Thehero,whotypicallywasaknight,wouldbeonhis
waytoachievealoftygoalandonthewayhewouldmeetamarvelthatcouldeitherhelphimor
hinderhim. Themarvelstendtobecrucialtotheplotofthestory.InLancelotandtheCart
,
1
Lancelot’smostdetrimentalmistakeishesitatingbeforegettingintothecartthatthedwarf
drove.TheLadyoftheLakeisaprominentcharacterinmanystories,mostimportantly,inone
versionofthemyth,shegivesArthurtheswordExcalibur.Thesesmallyetvitalrolesaretypical,
buttherearealsostorieswherethemarvelouscreaturesfunctionasthequestitself.TheQuestfor
theHolyGrailisacommonthemeinArthurianliterature.Thisquestwasthefocusofvarious
Arthuriantellingswheremanyknightsattemptedtoacquirethiswondrousobject.Theentireplot
ofSirGawainandtheGreenKnight
isSirGawainattemptingtodefeatthisknightwhois
completelygreenandcansurvivewhenhisheadischoppedcleanoff.
Themarvelsinthesetalesarecrucialtotheplot,buttheyaresupportedbycourtlyloveor
chivalrousactions.Lancelotistryingtosavehislovesohedoesnotquestionthedwarfandgets
intothecart.SirGawainisfollowingtheetiquetteofabeheadinggame;therulesstatedbythe
GreenKnightsaythatGawainmustreturnandallowtheGreenKnighttoattempttobehead
Gawaininayearandaday.Becauseofhishonorandhispromise,Gawainhastofollowthese
rules.Inthesetwoinstances,themarvelisnotquestionedordiscussedbutisdealtwith
accordingtowhatneedstobedone.Medievalromancestakeplacepartiallyinacourtsetting,
whichthecontemporaryreaderswouldbeaccustomedto.However,becausetheworldofThe
1
Marvelscouldbecreaturesorobjects.TheHolyGrailisamarvelbutsoistheLadyoftheLakeora
dragon.Amarvelissomethingthatdefiesthelawsofnatureandcouldbepartofthejourneyorcouldbethe
objectsoughtforonajourney.
21
WoodBeyondtheWorld
isnotinEurope,thereaderdoesnothaveanormalreadyestablished
whenreadingthetext.
OnceWalterarrivesinthemarvelousworldthereisnolongeranemphasisonplot;the
storybecomesmorepoetic.Thefunctionofthebookisnolongertoarticulateacertainstory,but
toexpresstheessentialbeautyofthemostfabulousaspectsoftheartintheMiddleAges.This
expressionisrepresentedinboththepoeticallanguageofthepoemandthevisualnatureofthe
bookandthetextitself.
ThePoeticLanguage
WhileTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
isclearlyanarrativebecauseofthestructureandthe
waythatthetextfunctions,thelanguagethatMorrisusesispoetic.Themostobvious
characteristicofMorris’slanguageisthearchaicnatureofhissentences.Thereareafewways
thatheestablishesthisaesthetic:usingobsoletewords,usingwordsthataretypically
monosyllabicandAngloSaxoninorigin,andusingunusualwordorders.InRobertBoenig’s
introductiontoTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
,hediscussestheuseofarchaiclanguageandhow
MorrisseemstobeemulatingmanyofMalory’slanguagetraits.
NowthiswasthelastcountrywheretotheKatherinewasboun;sotherethey
abodesometenmonthsindailychaffer,andinpleasuringtheminbeholdingall
thattherewasofrareandgoodly,&makingmerrywiththemerchantsandthe
townsfolk,andthecountryfolkbeyondthegates,andWalterwasgrownasbusy
andgayastrongyoungmanisliketobe.(Morris13)
ThisquoteexemplifiesthemultiplewaysthatMorrisestablisheshisarchaiclanguage.
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Therearetwowordsthatwouldbeconsideredarchaicatthistime‘boun’and‘chaffer’.‘Boun’
means‘tosetout,go”and‘chaffer’means‘trade,buyingandselling’.‘Boun’hadchanged
spellingsbutwasstillbeingusedoccasionallyatMorris’stimeas‘bown’.However,Morris’s
useofthearchaicspellingimpliesthathewasattemptingtoinvokeanolderusage.Chaffering
wasatermstillusedwhenMorriswaswritingbutthenoun‘chaffer’,asitisusedinthetext,
wasobsolete.Eventhoughthesetermsarenolongerinpractice,theydonotdistractfromthe
reading.Morriswastalentedingivingenoughcontextcluestounderstandthemeaningofthe
wordwhilestillperceivingitsarchaicorigins.
Theabovequoteincludesmanywordsthatarenotmonosyllabic;however,Morris’s
intentionisstillclear.Thereareonlytwowordsthatdonotsoundliketheyarederivedfromthe
shortbluntAngloSaxonlanguage:Katherineandpleasuring.‘Pleasure’comesfroma
combinationofAngloNormanandMiddleFrenchinfluences.However,eventheotherthree
syllablewordinthequoteisfromanAngloSaxonetymology.‘Beholding’comesfromtheOld
Saxon‘bihaldan’.
Also,Morris’schoicetousewordslike‘folk’insteadof‘people’showshis
interestinkeepingthelanguagesimilartoMiddleandOldEnglish,whichwaslessaffectedby
Frenchinfluences.
ThearchaicwordorderthatMorrisusesfrequentlyinhistextisexemplifiedinthe
sentence“andinpleasuringtheminbeholdingallthattherewasofrareandgoodly”.Theorder
ofthatphraseisinteresting.Insteadofsaying‘beholdingallthatwasrareandgoodly’Morris
writes‘alltherewasofrareandgoodly’.Thisphrasingwouldtypicallybefollowedwithanoun
like‘make’or‘origin’,forasitisnowtheadjectives‘rare’and‘goodly’donothaveanounto
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describe.However,thisusageagaindoesnottakeawayfromthemeaningofthetext.Itisclear
thatMorrisisdiscussingthebeautifulthingsthatthecharacterswouldencounterinthiscountry.
ThisarchaicsentencestructureandsyntaxcanbeseeninThomasMalory’sLeMorte
d’Arthur
.AnotherelementofMorris’swritingthatseemstostemfromMaloryistheadditive
natureofthesentences.Thesentencesarequitelongandarecontinuedwiththeuseof‘and’and
commas.
Sowhenthedukeandhiswifewerecomeuntotheking,bythemeansofgreat
lordstheywereaccordedboth.Thekinglikedandlovedthisladywell,andhe
madethemgreatcheeroutofmeasure,anddesiredtohavelainbyher.Butshe
wasapassinggoodwoman,andwouldnotassentuntotheking(33).
ItisinterestingtonotethateventhoughMalorywaswritten400yearsbeforeMorriswas,the
languageisquitesimple.TherearerarelyoccurrencesofwordsthatcontemporariesofMorris
wouldnotunderstand.TheuseofarchaicwordsseemstobeatechniqueemployedbyMorristo
makehistextfeellikeanoldertext,eveniftheoldertexthewasworkingwithdidnotinclude
manyofthosewords.
Theuseofarchaiclanguagefunctionsasmorethanastylisticchoice;itemphasizesa
kindofnostalgiathatMorrisisattemptingtoexpresstothereader.Therevivalofmedieval
romanceandMorris’scleardriveforconservation,arebothrepresentedinthisnostalgia.By
usingthelanguageoftheoldertexts,Morrisisengagingtheaudienceintheexperienceof
readingtheseoldromances.ThistechniqueseemstoimplythatMorrisisnotsimplyattempting
toengagehiscontemporariesinanewexperienceofromanticmotifs,buttrulywantshis
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audiencetoregainthefeelingofreadingaromance.Thelanguageplaceshisreaderinthis
forgottenworldandthroughthelanguagerevivesthesentimentassociatedwiththeseoldertexts.
TheVisualText
WhileTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
isapoetictextitisalsovisual.Thisisrepresentedin
notonlytheimages,butthebookitself.ThebookbeginswithabeautifulimageoftheMaiden
fromthestory(fig.1).Theimagehasherwearingflowersandinameadowwhereflowersare
blooming.Itisclearthatsheisinthewoodsbecauseoftheboughsinthebackground.This
detailedimageisframedbyabeautifulborderofaspiralingvinewithflowers.Thesameframe
ispresentontheoppositepagewherethefirstletterisacomplexandelegant‘A’.Theletterisso
largeitcontinuesuntilthetenthlineofthetext.Throughoutthelengthofthebooktherearehalf
bordersofdelicatevinesaroundeverychapterheadingandeachoneisuniqueanddetailed(fig.
2).Eachchapterbeginswithasmallerbutnolessbeautifulletterstamp;inaddition,each
paragraphbeginswithasmallletterstampthatisreminiscentofthevinesandleavespresentin
therestofthetext.Evenwithinthelargeparagraphs,therearelittleoakleavesinbetweenthe
dialog,representingwheretheretypicallywouldbeaparagraphbreak.
Thephysicalnatureofthistextconstantlyremindsthereaderthattheyareengagingwith
abookratherthansimplyastory.Thevisualartthatisphysicallyinthetextisalsoreflectedin
thetextitself.ThewaythatMorrisdetailstheworldisreminiscentofPreRaphaelitework.With
manyofhisdescriptions,MorriscouldbeexplainingaPreRaphaelitepaintingbyoneofhis
colleagues.
Afterhehadgoneawhileandwhenasthesummermornwasatitsbrightest,he
sawalittlewayaheadagreyrockrisingupfromamidstofaringof
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oaktrees;...hesawthattherewasafountaingushingoutfromundertherocks,
whichranthenceinafairlittlestream.Andwhenhehadtherockandthefountain
andthestreamclearbeforehim,lo!AchildofAdamsittingbesidetherock
fountainundertheshadowoftherock.Hedrewalittlenigher,&thenhesawthat
itwasawoman,cladingreenliketheswardwhereonshelay.Shewasplaying
withthewellingoutofthewater,&shehadtrusseduphersleevestotheshoulder
thatshemightthrustherarmstherein.Hershoesofblackleatherlayonthegrass
besideher,&herfeetandlegsshonewiththebrook.(60)
ThewaythatMorrisdetailsthebackgroundofthepaintingwithadescriptionofthetrees,rock
andstreamischaracteristicofthePreRaphaeliteartistswhoplaceexquisitedetailintoelements
thebackgroundoftheirpaintings.Also,thewaythatMorrisreferenceslightinthescenebrings
tomindhowimportantlightwasinmayPreRaphaeliteworks.Inthisscene,the‘mornwasatits
brightest’,whichgivesthereadervisualinformation.InPreRaphaelitework,especially
paintings,whichwomenarethecenter,thelightplaysofftheirskininawaythatmakesitglow.
Morrisseemstobealludingtothisaestheticwhenhediscussesthephysicalnatureoflight.Also,
thefinalimage:“herfeetandlegsshonewiththebrook”reflectstheglowingaestheticthrough
theimageofherwetfeetandlegsreflectingthebrightmorningsun.
PreRaphaelitepaintingsthatincludeabodyofwater,likeTheLadyofShalott
byJ.W.
Waterhouse(fig.3),emphasizethewomaninthepictureinacompellingwaythatisalsousedby
Morris.Eventhoughwaterisoneofthemostreflectivematerials,thewomeninthesepaintings
seemtobereflectingthelightmorethanthewater;thisistrueaboutTheLadyofShallot
.The
Ladyisinaboatonariver,whichcoincideswithaparticularscenefromTennyson’spoemof
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thesamename.Inthepaintingitisclearthattheladyisthefocusnotonlybecausesheisinthe
center,butalsobecauseherbrightwhitedressseemstobereflectingthelightinawaythat
makesherdrawtheattentionoftheaudience’seyes.Thelightintheworldofthepaintingmust
bebrighttocreatethattypeofreflection,andyetthewaterisnotreflectingthelightatall.There
arereflectionsoftheskyandtreesinthewater,butthesunisnotreflected.Therearenobright
colorsinthewater,simplythedarkerreflectionsoftheworldaroundher.EventheLadyisnot
reflectedinthewater,becausethepaintingcutsoffbeforeherreflectionwouldhavebeen
necessary.ThistypeoffocusisbeingalludedtoinMorris’sdescriptionoftheMaidbecause
thoughhementionstheshiningmaidhedoesnotmentionthewater.
ThescenethatMorrissetswhenWalterfirstmeetshislove,couldbeadescriptionofa
preraphaelitepainting.Thistypeofdetailispresentthroughoutthetextsomuchso,thatthe
storycouldeasilybeportrayedinaseriesoftapestries.Thevisualnatureofthetextaddstothe
poeticalaestheticthatMorriswasstrivingfor.Thefocusofthistextisnottheplotbutto
conserveandmakeaccessiblethemostbeautifulelementsofMedievalart.
ReviewsandLetters
InTheCollectedLettersofWilliamMorris
,MorriswritestotworeviewersofTheWood
BeyondtheWorld
.Eachreviewwaspositiveandinsightful;however,WilliamMorrisagreed
withonerevieweranddisagreedwiththeother.Thefirstreviewer,TheodoreWattsDunton,was
writingforTheAthenaeum
magazine,aliterarymagazinepublishedinlondonfrom18281921.
(Jones)ThisreviewdiscussesthepoeticalnatureofTheWoodBeyondtheWorld.
WattsDunton
states:“Ifthename“metrelesspoem”canproperlybegiventoanyformofimaginative
literature,theseromancesaremorefullyentitledtothatnamethananythingthathasgone
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before”(1895).WattsDuntonistouchingonacomplexquestionthatinvolvesthedefinitionof
poetry.Poetryhasbeendefinedbyformandformhadbeenrepresentedprimarilythroughmeter.
ToanswerthequestionwhetherornotTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
ispoetry,WattsDunton
arguesthatthoughthetextdoesnotfollowa“recognized
metricallaw”thetextcouldstillbe
definedaspoetry.Thisisbecausethesentencesfollowthe“simplemethod”ofpoeticalphrases
andthe“imaginativeliteratureisimbuedthroughoutwithpoeticalcolour”.Theseobservations
aretrueofthetext,howeverWattsDuntonseemstobemissingakeyelement.Muchofthe
innovationofMorris’sworkliesinitsabilitytouseelementsofpastfantasticalworksthatwere
writteninpoetry,butbringingthemintoamorecontemporaryform:aproseromance.
Morris’slife’sworkcannotclearlybedefinedbecausehewasinvolvedinsomany
aspectsofsociety,howeveroneofthecommonthemespresentinbothhisliteraryworkand
textiledesignistheneedtoconservebeautyinanaccessiblecontext.Throughhisdesigncareer,
MorrisworkedtobringthehighartoftheMiddleAgesintothehome.Indoingso,hemadethe
magnificentart,accessibletopeopleonadailybasis:itwasbeautifulandpractical.Thisiswhere
WattsDuntonfallssomewhatshort;Morrisiswritingwithpoeticalelementsbutheis
definitivelynotsimplywritingpoetry.Theaccessibleliteratureofthelate1800’swerenovels
andthroughhisproseromances,MorriswasbringingthemostbeautifulelementsofMedieval
literaturetothenineteenthCentury.
Inadditiontodiscussingthepoeticalnatureofthetext,WattsDuntonalsodiscussesthe
waythatMorrisusesnoncontemporarylanguage.Heasksthequestion“Isitlegitimateandisit
wiseforanartisttoreturnupthestreamofliteratureinwhichheworksinordertopreservesome
ofthebestoftheoldbeautiesofhislanguagefrombeingsweptawaybymoderninnovations?”
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(1895)ThisquestiondirectlycorrespondswiththethemeofconservationthatMorriswastrying
toachievewiththiswork:theconservationofhowmarvelsfunctionedinmedievalromances.
ThisconservationeffortwasrepresentedinthelanguagethatMorrischosetouse.Thearchaic
languagealludesbacktohowmedievaltextswereoriginallywritten.EventhewaythatMorris
physicallyrepresentedthetextasanilluminatedmanuscriptharkensbacktotheoriginal
romantictales.Theconservationofthetext,pairedwiththeaccessibilityofthemedium,makes
thistextbothbeautifulandaccessibleeveniftheaestheticofthetextisnolongeralwaysclearto
amodernreader.
Afterreadingthisreview,WilliamMorrisfeltinclinedtorespondtotheauthor.Inaletter
writtentoTheodoreWattsDuntononMarch7th,1895,Morriswrites:“Onehassooftenbeen
praisedfordoingwhatonehasbynomeansaimedat,thatitisaverypleasantchangetofind
someonewhounderstandsone'saim,andissokindastothinkthemarkhasbeenhit”(Collected
Letters
252).WattsDunton’scommentsaboutthenatureofthelanguageusedinthepoem
clearlyisexactlywhatMorrisintended.Morrisusesarchaicbutsimplelanguagethatisnot
didacticorrhetoricalintheslightest.Itissimplywrittenforthestorywithnoulteriormotivein
mind.Thissimplicityiscomparedtocontemporarypoets;however,thissimplicityisanother
signthatTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
isnotsimplypoetrybutaproseromance.Poetryatthis
timewasfilledwithrhetoricandeuphuismasWattsDuntonstates,thereforeMorrisisnot
writingcontemporarypoetry.
ThesecondreviewthatMorrisdirectlydiscussesinhiscollectedlettersappearedinThe
Spectator
,amagazinestartedin1828,whichisstillinprintmakingitthelongestrunning
magazineintheEnglishLanguage.Theauthorofthereviewwasnotpublished,soMorris
29
addressedhislettertotheeditorofthemagazine.Thearticlebeginsbydiscussingallegoryand
writes“Thereareprobablymanypeoplewhoreadanallegoryastheyreadafairytale,without
seekingforhiddenmeanings”(Spectator).TheauthorgoesontoexplainhowTheWoodBeyond
theWorld
isanallegoryforCapital,LaborandAristocracyandtheirrelationship.Theauthor
impliesthatMorrisisusingthetexttoexplainhissocialistpoliticalviews.Thearticleconcludes
with:
ThestoryofTheWoodbeyondtheWorld
,takenasafairytale,ispoeticaland
highlyimaginative,butifwearecompelledtolookintoitsteachingweare
remindedofthemirrorinwhichwenowseelifedarkly,andofanancientmirror
inwhichthefaceslooksomewhatdistorted,thoughtheframeisquaintlysetand
enrichedwithjewels.(Spectator)
Thiscriticenjoyedthestoryitselfandbelievesitis‘poetical’and‘highlyimaginative’butseems
tobelievethatthevalueofthestorycomesfromthesocialistallegory.Thisclearlyisnotwhat
Morriswasattemptingbecausehejustagreedwiththepreviousreviewerthathedidnotintend
anyhiddenmeaningbehindthestory.WhilethefirstreviewerbelievedMorris’slackofdidactic
teachingwasrefreshing,thesecondreviewerseemedincapableofenjoyingastorywithoutitand
hadtoprojectateachingontoastorythatdidnotintendtobedidactic.
Inhislettertotheeditor,Morriswriteshisthanksforthepositivereview,butalso
discussestheproblematicnatureoftheanalysis.Heexpressesthathedoesnottypicallyrespond
toreviewofhisworkbecausethe“writershaveformedtheiropinionsongroundssufficientto
themselves”(CollectedLetters
291)
.However,hebelieveditwasnecessarytorespondtothis
reviewbecausehedidnotwantotherreaderstobeleadastraybythisoverlyconfidentanalysis.
30
Morrisexplains:“IfIhavetowriteorspeakonsocialproblems,IalwaystrytobeasdirectasI
possiblycanbe.Ontheotherhand,Ishouldconsideritbadartinanyonewritinganallegorynot
tomakeitclearfromthefirstthatthiswashisintention”(CollectedLetters
291)
.Inthisway,it
seemsthatthereviewerwasincorrectabouttheworkfortworeasons:Morrisdoesnotdiscuss
politicsunlessdirectlyaddressingtheproblems,andifhehadwroteanallegoryhewouldhave
donehisbesttomakeitexpresslyclearwhathewasattemptingtodo.
Authorsofmedievalromancesdidnothaveulteriormotiveswhenwritingtheirtexts;
theyweresimplyattemptingtoconveyabeautifulstory.Thisisexactlythetypeofwritingthat
MorriswastryingtoconserveandrevitalizebywritinghisProseRomances.Morris’sworkwas
notwrittentodiscussalargerissuefacinghissocietybyusingallegory;itwasaneffortto
conservemultipledifferentaspectsofMedievalLiterature.
Conclusion
TherearemanyaspectsofModernFantasythatwerepioneeredbyWilliamMorris.One
ofthemostimportantisthatMorrisestablishedhowthefantasyitselfisenoughtodriveatext.
Thebeautyofmarvelsneedstobepreservedandcontinuedevenifromancesthemselvesneedto
changedrasticallytoaccountforshiftingfashions.Morrisshowsthattheessenceandbeautyof
medievalromanceliesinthemarvelsofthetextratherthaninthecourtliness.
Morris’stextconservesmanyaspectsofmedievalliteratureusingdifferenttacticsto
initiatenostalgiainhisreader.Heusesarchaicwordsandwordordertorepresentatimefarin
thepast.Morrisalsoilluminatedhismanuscriptsinhisownwaywiththevisualartthatheprints
alongsidehisstories.Toemphasizethefocusofthestory,heletstheplotfalltothewaysideand
31
letstheromanticimagestakethespotlighttofurtherestablishthebeautyandsignificanceofthe
marvels.
Morris’suseofimageryinthestoryjustifiesthemarvelspresentinmedievalromances
byemphasizingtheirbeauty.Inhistext,hedoesnotfeeltheneedtoexplainordetailthe
ordinarybutinsteadfocusesonthefantastic.Thistacticconcentratesthetextontheessenceof
marvelitselfandallowsthereadertobaskinthebeautyofthefantasticimageswithouthavingto
worryabouttheirrelationtoalargerplot.
Unlikesomefantasy,Morris’sworkswerenotanallegoryforagreaterideabecause,for
him,fantasyitselfwashisgreatermeaning.Morrisfoundsocietyhadshiftedawayandlostits
magic.TherevivaloftheArthurianlegendpriortoMorris’stextsmayhaveremindedhimhow
fantastictheworldusedtobe,butashegrewolderliteraturebegantoshunmarvelsandmagic.
Tobattlethisdecision,Morristookituponhimselftomakeasafehavenforthesemagicalthings
andpavedthewayformoretobecreatedandadmired.
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Chapter2
FantasyGravitatedtotheNurseryWhenitWentOutofFashion
Children’sliteraturehasnotalwaysbeenseparatefromliteraturewrittenforadults.There
werefairytalesandnurseryrhymes,buttherewasnotasurgeforchildren'sbooksunitlafter
WWII.Children'sliteraturehasbothcensoredcontentandcensoredlanguage.Thecontentis
censoredbecausetherearetopicsthatadultshavedeemedinappropriateforchildrentoread
about.Twoofthemostcommonofthesetopicsaresexandgraphicviolence.Thelanguageof
children’sliteratureisalsocensoredintwoways.Children'sliteraturedoesnotincludeswear
wordsorwordsassociatedwithsex,anditalsohasamoresimplevocabularythanother
literature.Children’sliteraturehasasimplervocabularysothatchildrenwillbeableto
understandthetextwiththeirownlimitedvocabulary.Theseelementsdefinewhatis
foundationallydifferentbetweenchildren'sliteratureandotherliterature.
Beforetherewerechildren’sauthors,therewereauthorsassociatedwithchildren.Aesop
isaperfectexampleofthistypeofauthor.Aesopwasnotwritingspecificallyforchildrenand
hisworkisnotreadonlybychildren.However,hisworkslowlybecameassociatedwithchildren
andAesop'sFables
becameapopularbookforchildrenbecauseofthestrongmorallessons
presentinthetales.AfterWWII,JellaLepmanestablishedtheInternationalBoardonBooksfor
YoungPeopleinZurich,Switzerlandin1953.Thiseventleadtomanymajordevelopmentsin
establishingChildren'sLiteratureasitsowngenre.Followingthesedevelopmentscamewhatis
knownasthesecond‘goldenage’ofchildren’sliterature.Whilethereisnodistinguishable
reasonthatchildren’sliteratureflourishedatthistime,itwasinaccordancewithdevelopmentsin
education.(Hunt,255)
34
Duringthistimetherewasalsoashiftinhowchildren’sliteraturewasviewed.Thisgenre
startedtodrawprominentauthorswhowrotesomeoftheirbestworkduringthistime:Lucy
Boston,PhilippaPearce,WilliamMayne,AlanGarner,RosemarySutcliff,BeatrixPotterand
manyothers.OneofthesesuchauthorswasC.S.Lewis.C.S.Lewisisoneofthemostprominent
andinfluentialchildren’sauthorsofalltime.Hisseries,TheChroniclesofNarnia
,becamean
instantclassicwhenthefirstbookwaspublishedin1950.However,C.S.Lewiswoulddisagree
withhistitleasachildren’sauthor,infacthewoulddisagreewiththewholeconceptof
children’sliterature.
WhileC.S.LewismaybemostfamousforhisNarniaseries,hewasmuchmorethana
children’sauthor.Lewiswasalsoapoet,literarycritic,theologian,essayistandacademic.He
wrotemanyfictionworksincludingasciencefictiontrilogyandTheScrewtapeLetters
:a
Christianapologeticnovel.LewiswasthechairofMedievalandRenaissanceLiteratureat
CambridgeUniversitythoughhebeganhiscareeratOxford.ThroughhistimeatOxford,Lewis
becameamemberofthegrouptheInklingstowhichJ.R.R.Tolkienalsobelonged.Lewis’swork
hashadalastingeffectonmanydifferentaspectsofliterature,someofhismostilluminating
worksarehisessays,especiallythosecollectedinthebookOfOtherWorlds.
OfOtherWorlds
consistsofmanydifferentworksincludingbothessaysandshortstories.
Inthisbook,hediscussestwoimportantandblossominggenresinthe1950’s:fantasyand
children’sliterature.C.S.Lewishasafewdescriptionsaboutwhyitisproblematictoseparate
children'sliteratureandadultliterature.Thefirstissueisseparatingthemimpliesthatadults
shouldnotreadchildren’sliterature.Lewisargues:“thatachildren’sstorywhichisenjoyedonly
bychildrenisabadchildren’sstory”(24).Childrencanenjoystoriesthatarewrittenwelland
35
havelevelsofengagement;however,ifastorylacksamorecomplexmeaningorissimplynot
veryinterestingthenthestoryisnotgood.Thesearethetropesthatpeoplewritewhentheirgoal
istosellbookstochildren.Thereasonsthatchildren’sstoriescanbebadarethesamereasons
whyanystorycouldbebad.Childrenarenotnecessarilyjudgesofwhatconstitutesgood
literature,butthatdoesnotmeanthatchildren’sauthorsareallowedtobelazy.Lewiscontinues
byexplaininghowchildren’sliteratureshouldbeapproached:“Wherethechildren’sstoryis
simplytherightformforwhattheauthorhastosay,thenofcoursereaderswhowanttohear
that,willreadthestoryorrereadit,atanyage”(24).Thiscontinuestoexplainthatadultswho
likeacertaingenreofliteraturetendedtoreadthattypeofliteraturewhentheywerechildren.
Thereisno‘juveniletaste’ofliterature;thereareindividualsopinionsofwhattheypreferto
read.ThestoriesthatC.S.Lewisenjoyedreadingasachild,healsofindsenjoyableasanadult.
C.S.Lewisusestheseargumentstodiscussthenatureofthefairytale.“Inmostplaces
andtimes,thefairytalehasnotbeenspeciallymadefor,norexclusivelyenjoyedby,children”
(26).Theassociationbetweenfairytalesandchildrenisarbitraryandwasestablishedwhenfairy
taleswerenolongerconsideredfashionable.TheRealismmovement,establishedaftertheageof
enlightenment,pushedfantasticalliteraturetotheside.Duringthelatenineteenthcentury,
fantasticalliteraturebegantomakeacomebackbutpurefantasyorfairytaleswerestill
consideredimmatureornaiveliterature.Therefore,fantasywasdoomedtobesolelyforchildren.
C.S.Lewisdefendsfairytalesinthisessayandarguesthatthereisnoconcretereasonfor
fantasytobeconsideredjuvenile.Inhisexperience:“InowenjoythefairytalesbetterthanIdid
inchildhood:beingnowabletoputmorein,ofcourseIgetmoreout”(26).
36
Clearly,C.S.Lewisknowsthatchildren’sliteratureisessential.However,hedislikesthat
ithasbeenseparatedfromadultliterature,whichleadtoLewis’sconclusionthatithasbeen
definedincorrectly.Theimplicationthatchildren'sliteratureshouldbewrittenforand
exclusivelyreadbychildrenisincorrectandunhelpful.Lewisarguedthattheonlyreasonan
authorshouldwriteachildren’sstoryisbecause“achildren’sstoryisthebestartformfor
somethingyouhavetosay”(23).Treatingchildren’sliteraturelikeanyothergenreisinnovative
andcrucial.Understandingchildren’sliteratureasamediumforartaddressestheproblemwith
badchildren’sliterature.Iftheonlyreasononehastowritesomethingisbecausetheywantto
writesomething,thatpieceofliteraturewillnotbeinteresting.
Theideathatchildren’sliteraturecanbeaccessibletochildrenbutalsoconstituteasgood
literatureisexemplifiedbyTheLiontheWitchandtheWardrobe
.“TheLion
allbeganwitha
pictureofaFauncarryinganumbrellaandparcelsinasnowywood”(42).Theiconicimageof
Mr.TumnusthatbeginsLucy’sadventuresinNarnia,isoneofthemostimportantimagesinthis
text.Itdoesnothavemuchtodowiththeoverarchingallegorythatisessentialtounderstanding
theworkasawholebutthebeautifulimagespresentinthistextareoneofthemostcompelling
aspectsofthiswork.
Oneoftheotherintriguingelementsofthestoryisthewaythatthenarratorfunctionsas
acharacter.TheLiontheWitchandtheWardrobe
clearlycomesoutofastorytellingtradition.
Thewaythatthenarrationkeepsremindingthereaderthattheyarereadingastory,andthe
narrator’sinterjections,aretypicalofastoryteller.Theoralbasednatureofthistextistypicalof
children’sliteraturebecausechildrenarenotcompletelyliteratebeingsyet.Theyareslowly
learninghowtothinkandreasoninaccordancewithliterature,buttheyarestilltransitioning.
37
Thatiswhychildren'sliteratureislesscomplexandismoreactionbasedthanadultliterature.
However,whilethesecharacteristicsareassociatedwithchildren,theydonotexclusivelyapply
tochildren.Manyaspectsofreasoningthatintellectualsocietydeemsas‘juvenile’areactually
simplyoralbasedprocessing.
Theoralbasednatureofchildren’sliteratureisalsopresentinmanyFantasyworks
becauseofthesignificanceofitsoraltradition.Whiletherearemanyreasonswhythe
associationbetweenchildren’sliteratureandfantasyliteraturehavebeenincorrectlyequated,the
oralbasednatureofthetwotypesofliteratureisacharacteristicthattheybothshare.Itis
importanttoexplorethewaythattheNarnianworldbalancesa‘lawofexistence’withan
overarchingthemeandthewaythatthistextutilizeselementsoforalreasoning.
LawsofExistence
OneoftheaspectsmostinterestingintheworldofNarnia,isthewaythattheworld
balancesimaginedlogicwiththelogicandeventspresentinthehumanworld.WhenLucyfirst
entersNarniashenoticesthatsheisinthemiddleofasnowywood;however,shesoonfindsa
lamppost.Thecombinationoftwoimagesthatsheisusedtoseeing,awoodandalamppost,
aremademagicalbytheirjuxtaposition.Combiningthefantasticwiththenormalispartofwhat
makesTheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobe
soamusing.ThisallowsLewistobasealotofthe
lawsofhisnewworldinthelogicoftherealworld.However,unlikeMorris,Lewisisdedicated
toexplainingthelogicofthemagicalworldtothereaderinawaythatmakestheplotandthe
situationsoftheworldthefocusofthework.
ThefirstinstanceofthisexplanationoccursduringteawithMr.Tumnus.Thissceneis
vitaltoestablishinghowtheworldfunctions.WhileMr.Tumnusisexplainingwhatisgoingon
38
intheworldofNarnia,thetwocharactersarehavinganEnglishstyleteawithfood,drinkand
mannersthataretypicallyfoundinEnglishsociety.“Andreallyitwasawonderfultea.There
wasanicebrownegg,lightlyboiled,foreachofthem,andthensardinesontoast,andthen
butteredtoast,andthentoastwithhoney;andthenasugartoppedcake”(14).Thereisnothing
magicalorunnaturalabouttheteathatthetwocharactershare,eachfoodisavailabletothe
peoplewhowouldbereadingthisstoryandtheyareallfoodsthatcouldbeeatenatteatime.
Afterthisnormisestablished,Mr.TumnusthengoesontotellstoriesaboutNarniathat
arenottypicalofEngland.“HetoldaboutthemidnightdancesandhowtheNymphswholived
inthewellsandtheDryadswholivedinthetreescameouttodancewiththeFauns;aboutlong
huntingpartiesafterthemilkwhiteStagwhocouldgiveyouwishesifyoucaughthim”(15).
Thisdiscussionclearlyexemplifiesthewaythatthistextfunctions;thereismagicandnew
creaturesbuttheactionsofthetexttypicallyareeventswhichoccurintherealworld.Thereare
NymphsandDryadsbuttheydoatypicalthing:dance.Inadditiontothis,itisnecessaryto
noticehowLewismakessuretoincludedetailsaboutwhatthesecreaturesareduringthestory.
Mr.TumnusexplainsthattheNymphscomefromwellsandtheDryadscomefromtrees.This
inclusioncanbecreditedtothefactthatLucywouldnotknowwhatthesecreaturesare,but
Lewisismakingsureshe,andthereader,knowabouteachofthecreatures.
AnotheropportunityfordetaileddescriptionoccursatthehouseoftheBeavers.This
sceneisfilledwithbeautifuljuxtapositionsofbeaverlifeandthelifeofEnglishpeople.Lucy
walksintothebeaverhouseand“thefirstthingshesawwasakindlookingoldshebeaver
sittinginthecornerwithathreadinhermouthworkingbusilyathersewingmachine”(66).This
imageofabeaveratasewingmachineisdelightful;italsoemphasizesthepresenceofEnglish
39
lifeinthisworld.TheanimalsseemtofunctionexactlylikeBritishpeoplebuttheyhappento
liveintheplacesthattheywouldliveinthehumanworld.TheBeavers’moundisfilledwith
humantoolsanddifferentthingsthatpeopleeat,butitisstillamound.
ManyobjectsandbehaviorsoftheanimalscomefromEngland,buttheanimalseven
havethesamemannersasaBritishperson.WhenMr.Beaverbringsthechildrentohishouse
theypassbythedammadebyMr.Beaver.Thechildrenseethedamandthen“Theyalsonoticed
thathenowhadasortofmodestexpressiononhisfacethesortoflookpeoplehavewhenyou
arevisitingagardenthey’vemadeorreadingastorythey’vewritten”(Lewis,64).This
emphasizesthatmannersandthecodeofbehavioristhesameinNarniaasitisinEngland.The
BeaversactlikeEnglishpeopleratherthananykindofanimal;theyeveneatthesamething.
However,therearesomethingsthatarestillanimallike:Mr.Beaverspendshisfreetime
makingadam.
Lewisusesthelogicofthehumanworldtocreatethefoundationforfantasticallogic.
Thisfoundationenableshimtothenestablishthemagicofthetext.WhenLucyfirstentersthe
worldshehasteawithMr.Tumnus.Aftertheyhavetea,Mr.Tumnusbreaksdownandadmits
thathehaskidnappedLucytogivehertotheWhiteWitch.Thisisthefirstmomentthatthe
readerisintroducedtorealmagicinthestory.Mr.Tumnusisamarvel,buttheWhiteWitchhas
magic.“ItisshethathasgotallNarniaunderherthumb.It’sshethatmakesitalwayswinter.
AlwayswinterandneverChristmas;thinkofthat!”(17).Thisisthefirstmomentwhenthe
readeristoldaboutthepoliticsofNarniaandthisisthefirsttimethereaderencountersthemain
conflict.
40
Conflictsareinoppositiontothenormofaworld;Lewishassetthenormoftheworld
throughMr.Tumnus’shouse,hismannersandthestorieshetells.Then,hedescribeswhatis
wrongwiththeworldandinestablishingtheconflicthealsodefinesitasconflict.Becauseheis
describingtheactionsoftheWitchinanegativelight,heisclarifyingthattheeternalwinteris
againstthenormoftheworld;thereforeintroducingconflict.Notonlydoesthisconflict
immediatelyengagethereaderintheworlditself,butalsoengagesthereaderinthestory
becauseitplacestheprotagonistindanger.Inoneinteraction,Lewisisabletoestablishthebasis
ofanentireworld.
UnlikeinMorris,LewisexplainshowandwhymagicalthingshappeninNarnia.The
WhiteWitchkillsAslaninplaceofEdmundbutreturnsfromthedead.Thismagicisexplained
toLucyandSusan.AslansaysthattheWitchknewadeepmagicbutthereisanevendeeper
magicthatshedidnotknow,whichsavedAslan.“Shewouldhaveknownthatwhenawilling
victimwhohadcommittednotreacherywaskilledinatraitor’sstead,theTablewouldcrackand
Deathitselfwouldstartworkingbackwards”(Lewis156).ThissituationisdifferentfromMorris
andmedievalromanceintwoways:theprotagonistsquestionthemagicandthenthemagicis
explained.BecauseLucyandSusanaskwhyAslanwasabletoliveagain,heanswersthemand
explainsthelogicofhowthemagicworks.
AfterAslanrisesfromthedeadheperformsanothermiracle:hebringsallthestone
animalsbacktolife.ThismagicisnotquestionedbyLucyorSusanbutinsteadtheyjustwatch
inamazementasAslanisabletofreeallthecreatures.However,LucyorSusanhavenotceased
theircuriosity;inLewis’stext,onceacreaturehasproventhattheyareabletoperformmagic
eachnewactofmagictheyperformdoesnotnecessarilyneedtobeexplainedbythestory.Also,
41
becausetheyseeAslanbringingthecreaturestolifewithhisbreath,theydonotneedtoaskhow
heisdoingit.
ThetwocreaturesinthistextthatcanperformmagicaretheWitchandAslan.Eachone
hasspecificpowersthattheydisplayoverthecourseofthestory.However,theonceitis
establishedthatthecharactercanperformmagic,eachfollowingactofmagicdoesnotneedto
beexplained.ThefirsttimeinthestorythattheWitchperformsmagiciswhenshemeets
Edmundandgiveshimfood.
TheQueentookfromsomewhereamongherwrappingsaverysmallbottlewhich
lookedasifitweremadeofcopper.Then,holdingoutherarm,sheletonedrop
fallfromitontothesnowbesidethesledge.Edmundsawthedropforasecondin
midair,shininglikeadiamond.Butthemomentittouchedthesnowtherewasa
hissingsoundandtherestoodajewelledcupfullofsomethingthatsteamed.(32)
Thismomentisimportantbecauseitisthefirsttimethatthereaderencountersmagicinthe
story.ItisalsoimportantbecauseitestablishesthemagicalpoweroftheWhiteWitch.Lewis’s
choicetohavethefirstmagicsheperformstocomefromasourceotherthanwandisinteresting
becauseherwandishermostterrifyingweapon.Themagicofthismomentispresentinthe
imagery.Thecopperofthebottleinvokestheimageofabrightandshiningobjectthatwouldbe
glisteningwiththereflectionsofthesnow.Thenthedropofliquidissobrightitwas‘shining
likeadiamond’.Atypicalmetaphorforashiningliquidwouldbeacrystalbecausecrystalsare
transparent.However,Lewis’suseofdiamondinvokesamoremysticalandextravagantimage
whilealsoexpressingthattheliquidisnotsimilartowaterbutmustbemuchmorebrightand
reflective.
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Themagicoftheworldisexplainedanddescribedwithclarityandintention.Lewisis
clearabouthowtheworldfunctionsandwhatisthemainconflict.Lewisusesimageryto
establishboththefoundationallogicofEnglishsocietyandthemagicallogicoftheNarnian
world.Throughtheimagesofthetextandtheexplanationsofcharacters,Lewisisableto
integrateEnglishobjectsandbehaviorswithmagicalcreaturesandforcesflawlessly.
UseofImagery
Lewis’sexplanationsbuildtheworldforthereaderusingacombinationofimages.This
styleistypicalofWilliamMorrisandfunctionsinLewis’stexttohelpthereaderpictureNarnia.
LewisismorefocusedonplotandcharacterthanMorris,buthestillusesimagestoportrayhis
story.Thefirstimageofafaunwithanumbrellaandparcelspassingbyalamppostinthe
middleofasnowywoodisaniconicimagefromthistext.Infact,thisimageiswhatinspired
LewistowriteTheChroniclesofNarnia
.Inhisessay,‘ItAllBeganwithaPicture”Lewis
describeshowhehadthisimageinhisheadsincehewasateenager“Thenoneday,whenIwas
aboutforty,Isaidtomyself:‘Let’strytomakeastoryaboutit.’”(42).LikeTheWoodBeyond
theWorld
,Lewis’stextusesdistinctimagestocreatetheworld.TheimagesinLewis’stext
functionlikeillustrationsthathelpmaketheworldspecificeventothosewhowerehearingit
readaloud.ThefirsttimethatEdmundseestheWhiteWitchispaintedlikeadetailedpicture.
Thecolorsareclarifiedandthedimensionsofcharactersaredetailedwithprecision:
ThereindeerwereaboutthesizeofShetlandponiesandtheirhairwassowhite
thateventhesnowhardlylookedwhitecomparedwiththem;theirbranching
hornsweregildedandshonelikesomethingonfirewhenthesunrisecaughtthem.
Theirharnesswasofscarletleatherandcoveredwithbells.(27)
43
Thefirstelementofthisscenetobedescribedarethereindeer.Theyarenotonlydefinedas
whitebut“sowhitethatthesnowhardlylookedwhiteincomparison”.Theemphasisonthe
colorgivesthereaderaclearimageofhowtopicturethereindeerbutalsogivesthemamystical
qualityforwhatcanbewhiterthansnow?Thenextdetailisthattheirhornsaregildedinthe
colorsoffire,whichwouldmakeabeautifulcontrasttothewhiteoftheirfurandthewhiteofthe
snowthatisallaroundthem.Thiscontrastisrepeatedinthecoloroftheirharness:scarlet.This
descriptiongoesontodetailthedwarfandtheWitchinthesamedetaileddescriptionasthe
reindeer,usinglanguagetopaintavibrantpicture,whichalsoaddstothefantasticalnatureof
thisscene.
Theseimagesarenotstyledafteranyparticularvisualmedium.However,theylend
themselvesbeautifullytoillustration.ThefirsteditionofTheLion,TheWitchandtheWardrobe
wasillustratedbyPaulineBaynesandtheabovepassagewasrenderedbyherinthetext(fig.4).
Thisimageisintriguingandcapturestheessenceofthemomentevenifitdoesnotsuccessfully
followallofthespecificdetails.Thereindeerarenotwhiterthanthesnowbuttheimage
captureswhatisimportantaboutEdmund’sfirstmeetingwiththeWhiteWitch:howterrifying
andpowerfulshelooks.Theblankwhitenessofherbodyandclothingmakeherseemabsolutely
inhumanandalsovisuallyconnectherwiththecursethatsheplacedonNarnia:theeternal
winter.Theillustrationshowshowhersledgestandsoutfromthesnowybackgroundandthe
ornategoldpatternseemstoimplyherwealth.Thisillustrationalsoclearlyestablisheshowout
ofplaceEdmundisinthisnewworld.WhiletheQueenseemstocomefromthesnowoftheland
itself,everythingaboutEdmundclasheswiththeworldaroundhim.Thebrightcolorofhisshirt
standsoutagainsttheimmaculatewhiteofthesnowaroundhim.Heisalsodressedinalight
44
sweatervestandshorts,whichseemridiculouswhileheisstandinginsnowandtheother
charactersinthepicturearecoveredinblankets.
Lewisusesimagerytoestablishmanydifferentaspectsoftheworld.Oneoftheclearest
usesisdefiningingthedifferencebetweentheWhiteWitchandAslan.Throughoutthetext,the
Witchisassociatedwithwhiteandred,whichhaveconnotationsofwinteranddeath.“Herface
waswhitenotmerelypale,butwhitelikesnoworpaperoricingsugar,exceptforherveryred
mouth”(28).Everythingassociatedwithheriswhiteandredincludingherself.Contrastly,Aslan
isassociatedwithsaturatedcolorsforhebringsspringwithhim.“Forwhentheytriedtolookat
Aslan’sfacetheyjustcaughtaglimpseofthegoldenmane”(120).Themostobviousexampleof
thesecontrastingcolorpalettesiswhenAslanbringsthecreaturestolifewhohavebeenturned
tostonebythewitch.“ForasecondafterAslanhadbreatheduponhimthestonelionlookedjust
thesame.Thenatinystreakofgoldbegantorunalonghiswhitemarblebackthenit
spreadthenthecolorseemedtolickalloverhimastheflamelicksalloverabitofpaper…”
(162).Themarblestatues,whichwouldbebrightwhiteandcoveredwithsnowistheperfect
imagerytobeassociatedwiththewitch.Notonlydoesshestoplifebecauseshemakesit
eternallywinter,butthatisalsohergreatestpowerthatshecanturnlivingbeingsintostone.In
contrast,Aslanisthebringeroflife;hebringsspringtotheworldwhenhearrivesandoverthe
courseofthestorywinterslowlyends.
ThepassagethatdescribesAslanbringingthelionbacktolifeexactlyexemplifiesAslan
asalifebringer.Hebreathesonthepurewhite,marblelionandslowlycolorandlifespreads
untilheisaliveandwell.TheuseoffireinthedescriptionishelpfulbecauseAslan‘melts’away
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thestoneandalso‘melts’thesnowinNarnia.ThedeepfierygoldthatisassociatedwithAslan
immediatelyalludestothesun,whichalsodefeatswinterandbringsspringbacktotheworld.
TheWitchandAslanarecontrastedinanotherwayaswell:theWitchisassociatedwith
materialwealthandAslanisassociatedwithnaturalbeauty.Thefirsttimeweareintroducedto
theWhiteWitchsheisinasledgedrawnbybeautifulreindeerandshehasaservantwhodoes
everythingforher.“Shewascoveredinwhitefuruptoherthroatandheldalongstraightgolden
wandinherrighthandandworeagoldencrownonherhead”(2728).Sheis“covered”infurs
andhasa“golden”wandandcrown,whicharebothsymbolsofgreatwealth.Whenshegives
Edmundsomehotchocolateitispresentedinajeweledmugandtheboxoffoodwas“tiedwith
agreensilkribbon,which,whenopened,turnedouttocontainseveralpoundsofthebest
TurkishDelight”(Lewis32).TheWitchisassociatedwithextravagance;hotchocolate,which
usuallywouldbeservedinamugwasservedinajeweledgoblet.TheboxofTurkishDelights
wastiedwithsilkandtheTurkishDelightwasthebestthatcouldexist.Shelivesinahugecastle
andtravelsinabeautifulsledge.
ThelavishlifestyleoftheWitchisjuxtaposedwiththenaturalessenceofAslan.Aslan
doesnotwearanyclothingbuthisgreatmane.Hedoesnotownanypossessionsandthereisno
descriptionofwherehelives.Heisassociatedwithnature;thewealthandbeautythatheis
associatedwithisthatofspring.
Everymomentmoreandmoreofthetreesshookofftheirrobesofsnow.Soon,
whereveryoulooked,insteadofwhiteshapesyousawthedarkgreenoffirsorthe
blackpricklybranchesofbareoaksandelms.Shaftsofdelicioussunlightstruck
downontotheforestfloorandoverheadyoucouldseeablueskybetweenthe
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treetops.Comingsuddenlyroundacornerintoagladeofsilverbirchtrees
Edmundsawthegroundcoveredinalldirectionswithlittleyellowflowers…
(Lewis114).
Inthispassage,Aslan’spowershakesoffthesnowcoveroftheWitch.UndertheWitch’spower,
everythingwasthesame:“whiteshapes”.However,Aslanbringsbacktheindividualityand
diversityofthenaturalworld.Nowthegreenfirtreesandtheoakscanbedifferentiated.Thesun
beginstoshinebrightlyandactivelyaffectstheworldaroundit.Theskyceasesbeingagrey
voidandslowlythecloudsparttoallowthesunthrough.Therichnessofthenaturalworld
emergesandbeginstothrivebecauseofAslan’spresenceandslowly,theWitch’spowerbegins
tomelt.Throughthesedescriptionsandassociations,Lewisisabletodiscussthelargerthemes
ofthetext.
ImagesareessentialinunderstandingNarniainmanyways;theyweretheoriginofthe
world,theworldisbuiltthroughthem,andthemeaningofthetextisestablishedinimages.
TherearemanymeaningsbehindthestoriesaboutNarnia;themostfamousofthesebeingthe
ChristianallegorythatstemsfromAslan’scharacter.Inthisway,Narniaitselfisanimagethat
representsanotherbeliefsystem.“Iam[inyourworld].’saidAslan.‘ButthereIhaveanother
name.Youmustlearntoknowmebythatname.”(TheVoyageoftheDawntreader
).Thefaith
thatthechildrenfeelintheirloveforAslanisareflectionofhowpeoplefeelaboutJesus.Like
thepaintinginTheVoyageoftheDawnTreader
,Narniaitselfcanbeavehiclethatguidesthe
readertotheChristianfaith.ToLewis,Narniaisnotafictionalplace;itisimagination.Itisreal
inthewaythatReligionisrealtopeopleoffaith;itexistsbecauseyoubelieveitexists.Itisnot
realinaphysicalwaybutinaspiritualway.
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WhilethemeaningbehindMorriswasconservingtheessenceofmedievalromanceinits
ownbeautifulworld,Lewis’smeaningisestablishingaplaceofmagicalfaith.Inthisplace,good
andevil,natureandmaterialcanencountereachotherheadonandcharacterscanexplorewho
theyareforaninfiniteamountoftime.
OralityoftheStory
Lewisusesimagestoestablishthelawsoftheworldandtoemphasizeimportant
elementsoftheplot.However,thevisualnatureofthetextmayalsobestemmingfromanother
characteristicofLewis’swriting:storytelling.Thestorytellingnatureofthetextisimpossibleto
misswhenreadingTheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobe.
Thenarratordirectlyaddressesthe
audienceandusescolloquiallanguage.Inaddition,therearemanymoresubtlecharacteristicsof
thetextthatalsostemfromanoraltradition.
Therearetwoelementsofthistextthataddtothestorytellingnature:thelogicof
children’sliteratureandtheoraltraditionoffantasyliteratureasawhole.Fantasticalliterature
hasbeenaroundsincethebeginningofliteratureitself.Homer’stextswerefantasticalinnature
andincludedtypesofcharactersthatarepresenteveninmodernfantasy.Giants,dwarvesand
witchesarecharactertropesthathavebeenaroundsincebeforewrittenliteratureexisted.
Becausefantasyliteraturebeganasanoraltradition,therearestillcharacteristicsofthetextthat
arepresentfromwhenthesetypesofstoriesweretoldingreathalls.
Oneofthemaincharacteristicsoforalstoriesistheactionbasednatureofthetext.
“Thereisnothingtobackloopintooutsidethemind,fortheoralutterancehasvanishedassoon
asitisuttered”(Ong39).Whenoneishearingastorytold,thereisnowaytorereadapassage
thathasjustbeensaid.Becauseofthis,theplotcannotbelostinunnecessarydetailorelsethe
48
audiencewouldforgetwhathadjusthappenedinthestory.TherearemomentsinTheLion,the
WitchandtheWardrobe
wherethetextisfocusedondetail,buteventhesedetailedsectionsare
focusedonaction.Thereareveryfewlongdescriptivepassagesthatarenotfocusedonaction.
ThepassagewheretheQueengivesedmundcocoaandturkishdelightisaprimeexampleofthis
phenomenon(quotedonpage40).
Eachverbinthepassageisanactiveverb,soeachsentencecontinuestheplotinasmall
way.‘TheQueentook’,‘sheletonedropfall’,‘ittouchedthesnow’and‘therestoodajewelled
cup...steaming’alladdtotheactionoftheplotthatdescribeshowtheWitchperformsthispiece
ofmagic.While,thepassageisfocusedondescriptionincludingwhatthemagicalobjectslook
like,themaindescriptionisactive.
However,thereareotherpassagesthatdescribeascenenotaneventandthesetendtobe
lessactive.WhenLucyfirstentersNarnia,Mr.Tumnusisdescribedingreatdetail:
HewasonlyalittletallerthanLucyherselfandhecarriedoverhisheadan
umbrella,whitewithsnow.Fromthewaistupwardshewaslikeaman,buthis
legswereshapedlikeagoat’s(thehaironthemwasglossyblack)andinsteadof
feethehadgoat’shoofs.Healsohadatail,butlucydidnotnoticethisatfirst
becauseitwasneatlycaughtupoverthearmthatheldtheumbrellasoastokeep
itfromtrailinginthesnow(Lewis9).
Thispassageismostlydescriptivebutalsokeepscomingbacktoaction.AfterMr.Tumnus’s
basicbodystructureisdescribed,thepassagefocusesonwhatheisdoingwithhistail.The
descriptionisnecessarybutthefocusofthepassageisthefactthatheiscarryinganumbrella
anddoesnotwanthistailtodraginthesnow.Theimportantandfantasticalelementsofthetext
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arenotsimplythewaythatMr.Tumnuslooksbutthewhatheisdoing.Thisisthecharmof
Narnia:thejuxtapositionoffantasticalandordinary.Thefauncarryinganumbrellaoratalking
beaveratasewingmachine.Thesamedelightfullymarvelousaestheticcomesfromtwoordinary
thingsbeingplacednexttoeachotherwheretheyusuallywouldnevermeet:alamppostinthe
middleofasnowywood.
Nexttoimagery,oneofthemostcharmingaspectsofTheLion,theWitchandthe
Wardrobe
isthestorytellinglanguageofthetext.Lewiswriteslikeheistellingastorytothe
audience.Thisischaracteristicofmanychildren’sstoriesbecauseitcanbereadoutloudeasily
andalsoitestablishesacharacterwhothereaderfollowsthroughoutthetext:anarrator.Having
anarratorisatechniquethathelpsthereaderengageinthetextandhelpsestablishthemesand
tropeswithinthistext.ThestorytellinglanguageofTheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobe
is
createdbyusingcolloquiallanguage,thesecondpersonpointofviewandinterjectionsbythe
narrator.
ThelanguageofLewis’stextisnotacademicorsophisticated;thisistypicalofchildren’s
literaturebecausetheaudiencemaynotunderstandcomplexvocabulary.Lewisconstructshis
sentencestosoundthewayhewantsthemtosound.InalettertoanotherauthorLewiswrites
“Everysentenceshouldbetestedonthetongue,tomakesurethatthesoundofithasthe
hardnessorsoftness,theswiftnessorlanguor,whichthemeaningofitcallsfor”(881).This
focusonthesoundofthewordsexemplifieshowLewis’swritingcaneasilybereadoutloud.
Evenwhensimplyreadingthetext,thesoundshouldaddtothenarrative.
TheattentiontoeasilyspokenlanguagealsoindicatesthatLewistoincludeyoung
children.Thecolloquiallanguagethatisusedinthistextisengaginganddelightful.Whenthe
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childrenfirstarriveatthehousetheybeginexploringandtheyfindsomeroomsthatwere“lined
withbooksmostofthemveryoldbooksandsomebiggerthanaBibleinachurch”(Lewis6).
Lewisuses‘very’agreatdealtoemphasizewhatheisdiscussingbecausechildrenmaynot
knowthemoreadvancedvocabulary,whichwouldallowhimtouseamorespecificword.In
addition,therearelittlemetaphorsandsimilesthataresimpleandwouldbeunderstoodby
anyoneofanyage.Thistypeofspeechistypicalofchildren’sliteraturebecausetheyhavea
smallervocabularyandmaynotunderstandcertainreferences.Forinstance,hereferstolarge
booksastheBiblenotEncyclopaediaBritannica.
Inadditiontothecolloquialvocabulary,thenarratorplaysanimportantroleinthe
languageofthetext.Thebookopensbyintroducingthechildren:“Oncetherewerefourchildren
whosenameswerePeter,Susan,EdmundandLucy.Thisstoryisaboutsomethingthathappened
tothemwhentheyweresentawayfromLondonduringthewarbecauseoftheairraids”(3).The
firstsentencesimplyintroducesthefourprotagonistsofthestory.Thesecondsentencebeginsto
establishtherelationshipbetweenthenarratorandthereaderbecausethenarratorcallsattention
tothestoryitself.Writing“Thisstoryisabout”automaticallytellsthereaderthattheyaregoing
tohearastory.Becauseastoryisbeingtold,someoneneedstobetellingit:thenarrator.By
bringingattentiontothestory,Lewisalsobringsattentiontothenarrator.Itisimportanttonote
thatthenarratorisintroducedafterthefourprotagonists.Thissetsthestandardforwhoisthe
importantinthestory;thenarratorisnotacharacterinthestorybutissomeonewhowillbeon
thejourneywiththereaderinsteadofwiththecharactersinthestory.
Shortlyafterthenarratorisestablished,theyhavetheirfirstinterjection.Whendescribing
thepeoplewholiveinthehousethatthechildrentravelto,thenarratorjumpsinwitha
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qualifyingstatement.“(TheirnameswereIvy,MargaretandBetty,buttheydonotcomeintothe
storymuch.)”(3).Thisstatementagaindrawsfocustothestorynatureofthetextandalsobegins
togivethenarratortheirownvoice.Throughoutthetextthereareinterjectionslikethisthat
slowlybuildthecharacterofthenarratorwithoutinterruptingtheflowofthetext.Inthis
instance,thenarratorisbeingpolite.Hemayhaveworriedthatitwasrudenottonamethe
servantssoheincludedtheirnamesbutwantedthereadertoknowwhyhehadthoughtit
unnecessarytoincludetheminthefirstplace.
Manyoftheseinterjections,liketheservant’snames,areusedtogiveextradetailsabout
thecharactersortheplot.Whendiscussinghowthechildrenreactedtoseeingtheprofessorfor
thefirsttime,thenarratormentionsLucyandEdmundsreactionsspecifically.Afterstatingeach
oftheirnameshequalifiesthemwithadiscussionoftheirage“Lucy(whowastheyoungest)
…andEdmund(whowasthenextyoungest)”(Lewis4).Thesequalifiershelpremindthereader
ofthenarratorwithouttakingawayfromtheplotofthetextitself.Theyalsofunctionasaneasy
wayforLewistointerjectimportantdescriptionwithoutjeopardizingtheflowofthenarrative.
Anotherwaythatthenarratormakeshimselfknownareinterjectionsthatarealittleless
descriptivebutstillbasedinthetext.Thesequalifytheactionsofthecharactersorgivethe
reasonswhytheydidwhattheydid.“(Shehad,ofcourse,leftthedooropen,forsheknewthatit
isaverysillythingtoshutoneselfintoawardrobe.)”(Lewis8).Thisinterjectionisamusing
becauseitisstatingtheactionsofoneofthecharactersbyreferencingapieceofcommonsense
thatanyreaderofthisbookwouldknow.Thehumoroftheinterjectioncomesfromthe
specificity,especiallytoamodernreaderwherewardrobesarelesscommon.Nowadays,itisnot
commonknowledgenottoclosethedoorwhenyouenterawardrobeand,possibly,itneverhad
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beencommonknowledge.ItisalsopossiblethatLewiswasemphasizingthispointtomakesure
thatchildrenreadingthistextwouldnotattempttofindNarniaandgetthemselvesstuckina
wardrobe.
Theseinterjectionsarealsousedtotellthereaderinformationabouthowthecharacters
arethinkingandfeeling.WhenMr.TumnusistellingLucytheterriblethingthathehasdoneto
ahumangirl,Lucyrespondsbutshedoesnotwanttohurthisfeelings:“(forshewantedtobe
truthfulandyetnottobetoohardonhim)”(Lewis18).Thistellsthereaderthatthenarrator
knowsalltheactionthatishappeningbutalsoisawareofwhatthecharactersarethinkingand
feeling.Thisimpliesthatthenarratorisomniscient,whichisimportanttoclarifywhencreatinga
narrator.Sincethenarratorknowseverythingthatishappeninginthestoryheisseparatefrom
thestoryitself.Ifhewerenotomniscient,hecouldbeseenasacharacterinthestoryandLewis
wouldhavetoclarifywhothecharacteris.
AnotherwaythatLewisestablishesthestorytellinglanguageisbyoccasionallyswitching
intothesecondpersonpointofview.Thereareafewinstancesofthisandittypicallyhappens
whenthenarratorissettingthescenefortheaudience.Oneofthefirsttimesthishappensis
whenthechildrenhavejustarrivedattheBeaverDam.“Andoutinthemiddle,andpartlyontop
ofthedam,wasafunnylittlehouseshapedratherlikeanenormousbeehiveandfromaholein
theroofsmookewasgoingup,sothatwhenyousawit(especiallyifyouwerehungry)youat
oncethoughtofcookingandbecamehungrierthanyouwerebefore”(Lewis65).Switchingto
the‘you’pronounisadirectaddresstotheaudience.Thisinvitesthereadertoimaginethatthey
arealsolookingatthisdamwiththechildrenandMr.Beaver.Thenarratorexplainshowthe
readerwouldfeellookingatthislittlehouseandwhatitwouldmakethemthinkabout.
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TheclearuseofstorytellingbyLewisisausefultoolforwritingchildren’sliterature
becauseitisasuccessfulwaytokeepthereaderengaged.However,thistypeofwritingisalso
alludingtothetraditionofstorytellingthatcanbetracedbacktoHomerandearlier.Thetradition
oforalstoriesiscomplexandintriguingbutoneelementoftraditionalstorytellingisthatthereis
alwaystheimplicationthatsomepartofthestoryistrue.Whetherthereisaclearmoralor
whetherthestoryisaboutalegendaryfigurewholivedatsomepoint,thereisusuallyakernelof
truthinstorytelling.ThisimplicationisverifiedbytheChristianallegorythatLewiscreatesin
thetext.Thetruth,forLewis,inhisstoryishisfaithinGodandfaithinthegoodnessofthe
world.
WhiletheChristianallegoryisLewis’struththatisnottheonlytruthfoundinNarnia.
Therearemanytruthstobeexploredinthistext,soifthereaderdoesnotconsiderChristian
valuesastruth,Narniadoesnotloseitssignificance.ItisimportanttoknowthatbeforeLewis
discoveredAslan,hesawafauncarryingparcelsinasnowywood.Themarvelousjuxtaposition
thatmakesNarniabeautifulcamebeforetheChristianideals.Whilethefightbetweengoodand
evilisanimportantthemeinthetext,itisnottheorigin.TheoriginofNarniawasthebeautyof
juxtaposingtheordinarywiththefantastic.
ReviewsandLetters
TheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobe
isaclassicchildren’sstoryandreadersknewthis
onlyafewyearsafteritwaswritten.In1952,inareviewofTheVoyageoftheDawnTreader
,
ChadWalshstatesthatTheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobe
is“destinedtobecomeamodern
fairytaleclassic”(“CaspianandReepicheep”).HethencontinuesbycommentingonNarnia
itself:“Onefindsastrongpoeticsenseandawarenessofthelovelinessandmysteryofauniverse
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whichcannotbewhollygraspedbycommonsense”(“CaspianandReepicheep”).LikeMorris,
Lewis’sreviewersspecifythepoetryofhistext.Theideaofpoetrymaystemfromthesame
imagebasedfunctionalityasMorris’swork.WalshseemstounderstandLewis’sintentionwhen
hewritesthatNarniacannot‘bewhollygraspedbycommonsense’forcommonsenseisexactly
whatLewisisplayingwiththroughoutthetext.Lewis’suseofjuxtapositionthreatensthereaders
commonsenseandmakesthemsetitasideforthepurposeofthestory.Untilthereaderrealizes
this,theywillbestuckonforcingthelogicoftherealworldontothelogicofNarnia.While
muchofNarnia’slogicisbasedintherealworld,onecouldnotjustifyeverythingthathappens
accordingtothelawsoftherealworld.
Theauthorofafantasticaltextencounterstheissueofrealityinasimilarway:the
fantasticalworldcannotrepresenttherealworldtoomuchorthefantasyfallsapart.Inaletterto
JaneGaskellaboutherbookStrangeEvil
,Lewislistsaseriesofconstructivecriticismsfor
GaskellabouthowshebuiltherworldthatistellingabouthowLewisconstructedNarnia.“Ina
fantasyeveryprecautionmustbetakennevertobreakthespell...Butwhenyouaddupholstered
seats,lavatories,andrestaurants,Ican’tgoonbelievinginfaerieforamoment.Ithasallturned
intocommonplacetechnologicalluxury!(CollectedLetters
880).Thereseemstobeaspecific
balancethathastobemadeabouthowmuchandwhataspectsoftherealworldcanbebrought
intothefantasyworld.
Therearecertainpartsoftherealworldthatcannotexistinthefantasyworld.Forthis
reason,thereareargumentsthatthefantasygenrecanseemconservative.Thisisbecausethe
aspectsoftherealworld,broughtintofantasycannotbeinnovative:theyhavetobelong
established.Thisisoneofthereasonswhyfantasyistypicallymedivalistic.Becausethereal
55
elementsoftheworldarejuxtaposedwiththatofthefantasticalworld,therealaspectshavetobe
ingrainedinthemindoftheaudience.AgoodexampleofthisistherelationshipbetweenMr.
andMrs.Beaver.Thetwoanimalsarebeaversandtherefore,thereisnoreasonforthemto
inhabitatraditionalroleofhusbandandwife.Butitiseasierfortheaudiencetounderstandtheir
relationshipbecausetheyhaveheardstoriesabouttypicalheteronormativecouplesfortheir
wholelives.Anreadercanonlyfocusonacertainamountofnewideasatatime.Pushinggender
roles,byusingtalkingbeaverswhilethereaderisalsotryingtounderstandtheoverallplotina
worldtheydonotknow,wouldbetoomuchforthemtoprocess.ThisistrueforTheLion,the
WitchandtheWardrobe
especiallybecauseitisatextforchildren.
InalettertoW.E.Scudamore,Lewiswrites“Itisimpossibleforthewitofmantodevise
astoryinwhichthewitofanothermancannotfind,andquiteplausibly,anallegory”(877).
LewisandScudamorewerediscussingTheFaerieQueene
andScudamoreseemstohave
expressedanallegoricalinterpretationinalettertoLewis.Inthisquote,Lewisseemstobe
implyingthatanytextcanbereadasmanydifferentallegories,soheishesitanttobelievethat
anyparticularoneiscorrect.
ThisinteractionisamusingwhenrecallingthereviewsofMorris’swork.Morriswas
almostoffendedwhenitwassuggestedthathisworkwasanallegorywhileLewisbelievesthat
anytextcanbeinterpretedasallegory.Thisdifferenceinopinionisclearlydefinedintheirwork
whereMorriswasintentionallywritingatextthatwasdefinitivelynotallegoryandLewiswas
writingatextthatdefinitivelywas.
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Conclusion
Thetwoforcesonthiswork,children’sliteratureandoraltradition,mergetocreatea
delightfullyclearnarratorandtext.Thenarratorvoiceseamlesslyguidesthemaincharactersand
thereaderfromthehumanworldtoNarnia.Thisoralitymakesthetextfeelauthenticandaddsto
theinherentvalueofthestory.Inthisway,thestorytellinglanguageofTheLion,theWitchand
theWardrobe
issimilartothewaythatMorrisusesarchaiclanguageinTheWoodBeyondthe
World.
Nostalgiaisausefultechniquetoinjectastorywithaestheticvalue.
Lewis’stextdiffersfromTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
inmanyways,themostimportant
beingthatwhileMorrisfocuseshisenergyonestablishingtheinherentbeautyandworthin
marvelsthemselves,Lewisuseshisfantasyworldtoexpressalargermeaning.Whiletheyboth
arereachingfordifferentgoals,theyusesomesimilartechniques.Theuseofimageryinboth
theirwritingissimilar.Bothauthorsuseimagerytoestablishthegreatertheme.Lewisalsouses
theimagerytoestablishthecharactersandthelargerplotthemes.Thedifferencebetweenthe
WitchandAslanisimportanttohisgranderconceptaboutgoodandevilbutitalsoestablishes
theconflictinthestory.
Lewisalsousesimagerytodefinetherulesofmagicandthejuxtapositionbetweenthe
humanworldandNarnia.Therulesofmagicareestablishedbyseeingeachcharacterperform
themagicthattheyarecapableof.Thejuxtapositionisestablishedthroughalltheimagesinthe
text:thisiswheremostofthefantasycomesfrom.ThesourceofNarnia’sdelightandfantasyis
Lewis’suseofjuxtapositionoftheordinarywiththeordinaryandtheordinarywiththe
fantastical.
57
ItisnecessarytonotethatwhileLewishasahighergoalinwritingthistext,thatthetext
doesnotsimplyexisttofulfillthatfunction.Mostofthefantasyandmagicinthistextdoesnot
addtotheoverarchingallegory.Ifitdid,thenthetextwouldnotbeentertainingforanyonewho
isnotChristian.However,thebeautyofLewis’smasterfuljuxtapositioninherentlypossesses
enoughvalueandworkonitsowntocarrythetextwithouttheallegoricalconcept.
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Chapter3
WhenWeTaketheGreenfromGrassourMindAwakes
ItisunderstoodthatJ.R.R.Tolkien’swork,TheLordoftheRings
,canbeconsideredthe
originofmodernfantasy.However,itisnecessarytounderstandthattheterm“modernfantasy”
isinitselfredundantbecausethegenreandtheterm‘fantasy’hasbeenaroundfornomorethan
seventyyears.IntheOxfordEnglishDictionary,thefirstmentionofthewordinrelationtoa
genreofliteratureisthetitleofthemagazineTheMagazineofFantasyandScienceFiction
first
publishedin1949.ThemagazinewasfirstcalledTheMagazineofFantasy
,whichencompassed
allfantasticalliterature.Foritssecondissueitexpandedthetitletospecifythedifference
betweenfantasyandsciencefiction.Thisspecificationissignificantbecauseitwasoneofthe
firstpublicationsthatdefinedadifferencebetweenthetwogenres.
Indeed,thisgenrewasinessence,createdbyTolkien’swork.J.R.R.Tolkienwas
exceptionallyinfluentialtohisfuturepeersinthefantasygenre.Hismostimportantworkwas
publishedatthesametimethatthegenrewasbeingdefined.Tolkien’sworkspecificallyfalls
underthecategoryof‘HighFantasy’,atermthatwascoinedbyLloydAlexanderin1997.This
subgenreoffantasyismorespecificandrepresentsthetypeofsecondworldfantasywherethe
rulesoftheworldareconsistentbutnotthesameasthehumanworld.Thisisincontrastto‘low
fantasy’thatbringsmagicintothehumanworld.‘HighFantasy’beganwithMorrisbutwastruly
bornthroughTolkien.
Evennow,almostseventyyearslater,longform,medievalistworksofhighfantasyare
beingpublishedandpopularized.GameofThrones
byGeorgeR.R.Martinisanprominentbook
60
seriesthatinspiredaleadingtelevisionseries.Also,TheKingkillerChronicles
isathreepart
seriesbyPatrickRothfussthatiscurrentlypopular.Boththeseseriesfollowthesameformatas
TheLordoftheRings
.Theyaresecondworld,longformtextsthataresetinmedievallike
worlds.Clearlytherearedifferencesbetweenthethreetexts,butitisfascinatingthatsucha
specificformisstillpopularoverahalfcenturylater.
Tolkien’sfantasyworksarenotsimplyengaging;hisprocesswascomplexandbegan
withalinguisticexploration.TolkienwaswellversedintheAngloSaxonlanguageand
graduatedwithadegreeinEnglishspecializinginOldNorse.HewasaReaderofEnglish
LiteratureattheUniversityofLeedswherehewrotemanyofhistranslations.Hethenreturned
toOxford,wherehegainedhisundergraduatedegree,asaRawlinsonandBosworthProfessorof
AngloSaxon.ItwasduringthisprofessorshipwhenhewroteTheHobbit
.Tolkiencreated
multiplelanguagesandthroughtheiroriginshewasabletocompileanintricatehistoryofa
fantasticalworld:Middleearth.Thishistoryslowlymorpheditselfintowhatwenowknowas
TheHobbit
andTheLordoftheRings.
However,Tolkien’slinguisticskillsetwasnottheonly
sourceofhiswork;healsousedmanystoriesandmythstoinspiretheplotofhisbooks.Heused
orallybasedstoriesfromNorsehistory,whichhewaswellversedin,andAngloSaxontextslike
Beowulf
,whichhefinishedtranslatingin1926.
Unlikethefantasticalwritersbeforehim,Tolkienbuilttheworldanditshistorybefore
writingthebooksthemselves.Bybuildingthetextfromthegroundup,Tolkien’sworkhasan
intricatehistorybehindit.Thistypeofscholarlyapproachcreatesafantasticaltextthatismore
literatethananythathadpreviouslybeenwritten.Whiletheplotstructureandthebasicactions
61
ofthetextstillfollowanoralnarrativearchtherearemanysectionsofthistextthatwouldnot
translateperfectlytoanoralstory.
ThelawsofexistenceinTolkien’sworldareevidentlydefinedthroughmanydifferent
mediums.WhileTolkiendoesusesomeofEnglishnormstocreatehisfoundationoflogic,he
doesnotdosotoamusetheaudience.Rather,heusesthefoundationoflogictohelpthe
audiencetounderstandthemorecomplexelementsoftheworldthathehascreated.The
juxtapositionthathappenswitheverydayrealityandfantasyinLewis’sworksarenotthefocus
ofTolkien’swork.EspeciallywhenthecharactersleavetheShire,theeverydayjuxtaposition
thatwasdelightfulaboutLewis,isignoredorglossedovertogivewaytothemoreimportant
aspectsoftheworld.
LikebothMorrisandLewis,imagesareimportanttoTolkien.However,theimportant
imagesinTolkienarerelatedtothehistoryoftheworld.Thestoryseemstobegininthemiddle
ofalargerpieceofhistory.Tolkiengivesenoughexplanationoftheworldsothattheaudienceis
notlost,buthedoesnotimmediatelydefinetermsthatthetypicalEnglishmenwouldnotknow.
ThismaycomefromthefactthatTheFellowshipoftheRing
isacontinuationofastorythat
TolkienwroteaboutinTheHobbit
butitseemsthatitservesagreaterpurpose.ThestoryofThe
LordoftheRings
seemstomimiclegendsasifthistextwereMiddleEarth’sversionofan
Arthurianlegend.Thehistoryisincludedfortheaudience’sbenefit,butthewaythatTolkien
writes,especiallyatthebeginning,seemslikeheexpectsthereadertoknowbasicinformation
abouttheworldlikewhatahobbitis.
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LawsofExistence
LikeLewis,Tolkienaddressesthenecessityofthelawsofexistenceinafantasticaltext.
Throughhisexplanationofhissubcreatortheory,Tolkiendescribeshowauthorscreatinga
SecondaryWorldneedtofollowasetoflogic.“Insideit,whatherelatesis‘true’:whileyouare,
asitwere,inside”(“OnFairyStories”132).Thistruthisnecessarytoestablishandcontinue
throughoutotherwisetheaudiencewillceasetobeengrossedinthestoryandwillbeforcedto
suspendtheirdisbelieftocontinuereading.Tolkien’stheoryofsuspensionofdisbelief,aterm
originallycoinedbySamuelTaylorColeridge,canbeunderstoodintwoways.Whenareaderis
investedenoughinthestorythattheyforgetthattheyarenotintheworldofthestory,thereader
hasnotsuspendedtheirdisbelief.However,TolkienusestheexampleofShakespeare’sMacbeth
toshowwhensuspensionofdisbeliefisnecessary.Itwillneverbetruethatanadult,educated
audiencewouldreallybelievethattheactorsonstagearetrulywitchescapableofmagic.Inthis
situation,itisnecessaryfortheaudiencetosuspendtheirdisbelieftofollowthestory.Thisis
whatbadSecondWorldstorymakersdo;theyputthereaderinapositionwheretheywould
havetosuspendtheirdisbelief.“Themomentdisbeliefarises,thespellisbroken;themagic,or
ratherart,hasfailed”(“OnFairyStories”132).
BecauseofTolkien’sneedtomakehisworldbelievable,Tolkienmakesthelogicofthe
worldperfectlyclear.Thisisevidentinthefirstchapter,whichdiscussesBilbo’sparty.
Throughoutthischapter,thereaderlearnsabouttheworldoftheshireandalsospecific
informationaboutthemaincharactersofthestory.Thefirstfewparagraphsintroducethereader
toBilboandFrodoanddetailstheirreputationintheShire.Heexplainstheirhistorywiththe
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SackvilleBagginses.ThroughthedescriptionofBilbo’spartyandeventsleadinguptoit,the
readerlearnsalotabouthobbitlife.
Hobbitsgivepresentstootherpeopleontheirownbirthdays.Notveryexpensive
ones,asarule,andnotsolavishlyasonthisoccasion;butitwasnotabad
system.ActuallyinHobbitonandBywatereverydayintheyearwassomebody’s
birthday,sothateveryhobbitinthosepartshadafairchanceofatleastone
presentatleastonceaweek.Buttheynevergottiredofthem(TheFellowship
35).
TolkienusesthesetypesofdescriptionsfrequentlyatthebeginningofTheFellowship
.
HedoesnotexplicitlydescribeimportantdetailsabouttheShireandtheworlditself,thoseare
learnedthroughcontextclues,butthesmallerdetails,likehowhobbitsdealwithbirthday
presents,areexplicitlyexplainedbytheauthor.
Therearemoregeneralaspectsofhobbitlifethatthereaderlearnsaboutthroughcontext
clues.Hobbitsareasmallpopulationofpeoplewhoareaversetochange,theyrarelytraveland
donotmuchcareforthenewsoftheworldaroundthem.Therefore,theyonlyeverhearrumors
ofwhatisgoingonoutsidethebordersoftheShireandwhentheydo,theydonotpaymuch
attention.Allthesecharacteristicsarerevealedtothereaderthroughafewdifferent
conversationsthatmostlyoccuratTheGreenDragon,thelocalbar.“‘Queerthingsyoudohear
thesedays,tobesure,’saidSam.‘Ah,’saidTed,‘youdo,ifyoulisten.ButIcanhear
firesidetalesandchildren’sstoriesathome,ifIwantto”(Tolkien53).Samandotherhobbits
whotalkaboutwhatisgoingonintherestofMiddleEarthareconstantlybrushedoffduringthis
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exchanges.Throughthisshortandsimpleconversation,thereaderlearnsagreatdealabout
hobbitlifeandhowthecharactersfunctionwitheachotherandwiththeoutsideworld.
Asthestoryprogresses,largertruthsandthemesabouttheworldstarttobedefinedby
Tolkien.TolkienbuiltMiddleEarththroughahistoryoflanguages,soitisnosurprisethat
wordsareundeniablyvitaltothewaytheworldfunctions.WhenGandalfthrowsFrodo’sgolden
ringintothefire,alineoftextslowlyappearsonthering.Gandalfexplains:“Thelettersare
Elvish,ofanancientmode,butthelanguageisthatofMordor,whichIwillnotutterhere”
(Tolkien59).ItisnotexplainedwhyGandalfchoosestonotspeakthelanguageofMordor,but
thisinteractionprovesthatspecificwordandspecificlanguagesholdpowerenoughtoworrya
mightywizard.
AnotherinstanceofwordsholdingpoweroccurswhentheFellowshipareontheir
journeyandtheyencounterthedoortoMoria.ThisisthefirstoccasionwhereGandalfdoesnot
seemtoknowexactlywhatisgoingon.Thegroupencountersariddlethatsays“Speak,friend,
andenter
”(TheFellowship
318).Gandalfinterpretsthis:“thesedoorsareprobablygovernedby
words...anywhoknewtheopeningwordcouldspeakitandpassin”(TheFellowship
318).This
isoneoftheinstancesinthetextwheremagicisnotinawizard'sstaffbutinaspecificword.In
thiscase,toenterMoriaoneneededonlytospeakthepassword.Thissceneemphasizesthe
powerofwordsinthistext,becauseitdistinctlyshowsthatwordscanproducemagic.Itisalso
importanttonote,thatcertainlanguagesseemtoholdmoremagicthanothers.Thecommon
tongue,whileitiswhatallthecharactersspeaktoeachother,doesnotseemtohavemuch
power.GandalffeltcomfortablespeakingtheprophecyofMordorinthecommontongueandat
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thegate,thepasswordneededtobespokeninElvish.Thepowerofancientlanguagesinthistext
isexplicitlyclearandlanguageiscrucialtothestoryarch.
ThelawsofexistenceforHobbitontendtobeshownthroughcontextandexamplesor
throughquickdescriptions.However,thelawsofexistencefortheworldasawholearegained
throughdifferenttechniques.Thereare,ofcourse,stillcontextcluesandshortdescriptionsbut
muchofthewaytheworldfunctionsistoldthroughlongdescriptionsofhistorybyworldly
beings.LikeLewis,Tolkienwasabletocreateamaincharacterwhowouldnotknowmuch
aboutthehistoryoftheworld,sothroughenlighteningFrodo,Tolkienisabletoenlightenthe
audience.Thistechniqueisadvantageous,becauseitkeepsthenarrativevoicefromhavingtodo
theexplainingandallowsthecharactersthemselvestoexplainthestory.“ItoldyouofSauron
theGreat,theDarkLord.Therumoursthatyouhaveheardaretrue:hehasindeedarisenagain
andlefthisholdinMirkwoodandreturnedtohisancientfastnessintheDarkTowerofMordor”
(TheFellowship
60).TheimageryinthissectiondefinesSauronasaterribleenemyofthegood
intheworld.Thisisthethefirstinstancewherethereaderisintroducedtothemainconflictin
thestory:theringandSauron.Immediatelyafterthisdescription,Gandalfgoesontoreferto
Sauronas“TheEnemy”.ThistellsthereaderthatthisbeingisagainstallofMiddleEarth,not
simplyonepersonorspecies.
UnlikeLewis,Tolkienestablishesalawofexistencemostlythroughthehistoryofthe
text.Heneverexplainsbehaviorormannerstothereaderbecausethataspectoftheworlddoes
notinteresthim.Instead,thefocusisonwhothecharactersareandtheirhistory.Thisis
exemplifiedwithhowmanyofthecharactersintroducethemselves.OnceFrodoleavestheShire,
mostpeopleareformallyintroducedwiththeirnameandthenameoftheirfather.AfterStrideris
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revealedtoactuallybeAragornheisreferencedfrequentlyas‘Aragorn,sonofArathorn’or
‘Aragorn,Isildur’sheir’.ThisistrueaboutothercharactersaswellsuchasGimli,whois
introducedas‘Gimli,sonofGloin’.Theseformaltitlesexemplifyhowdeeplythelawsofthe
worldareconnectedtotheirhistory.Eachpersonisnotmerelyanindividual,butanindividual
withagreathistoricalfamily.Aragorn’sfamilialhistoryisoneofthefocusesofthestory
becausehehascometotakehisthronebackfromtheStewards.
UsesofImagery
TolkienwasinspiredtowriteallhistextsaboutMiddleEarthbyonesentence.Inthis
sentence,istheimageofahobbitlivinginaholeintheground.“Inaholeinthegroundthere
livedahobbit.Notanasty,dirty,wethole,filledwiththeendsofwormsandanoozysmell,nor
yetadry,bare,sandyholewithnothinginittositdownonortoeat:itwasahobbithole,and
thatmeanscomfort”(TheHobbit
1).Thisopeningisdelightfulbutnotspecific;Tolkiendoesnot
explainwhatahobbitisorwhattheirhouselookslikebutahobbit’shomeisencapsulatedinone
word:comfort.Thisistheonlylookintoahobbitslifethattheauthorisgivingthereaderto
workoffof.Alltheseadventuresbeginswiththeimaginedcomfortofahobbithole.
Tolkien’sworldiscompletefantasy,soitisnecessaryforhimtohavedetailed
explanationstotelltheaudiencewhatcertainthingslooklike.WhenGandalfsetsofffireworks
atBilbo’sbirthdayparty,Tolkientakesthetimetodescribetheshowindetail.
Therewererocketslikeaflightofscintillatingbirdssingingwithsweetvoices.
Thereweregreentreeswithtrunksofdarksmoke:theirleavesopenedlikea
wholespringunfoldinginamoment,andtheirshiningbranchesdroppedglowing
flowersdownupontheastonishedhobbits,disappearingwithasweetscentjust
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beforetheytouchedtheirupturnedfaces.Therewerefountainsofbutterfliesthat
flewglitteringintothetrees;therewerepillarsofcolouredfiresthatroseand
turnedintoeagles,orsailingships,oraphalanxofflyingswans;therewasared
thunderstormandashowerofyellowrain;therewasaforestofsilverspearsthat
sprangsuddenlyintotheairwithayelllikeanembattledarmy,andcamedown
againintothewaterwithahisslikeahundredhotsnakes.(TheFellowship
3536)
Theauthordoesnotfeeltheneedtodescribetotheaudiencewhatafireworkisorhowitworks,
butitisnecessarytodescribewhatthespectaclelookslikebecauseTolkiencanbesurethatthe
readershaveneverexperiencedwatchingGandalf’sfireworks.Thedetailspresentinthispassage
describetheelementsofthefireworksthataremagic.Thespecificshapesandsensory
experiencesotherthansightareexplainedingreatdetail.
Thispassageismostlyfilledwithnaturalimagery;mostofthefireworks,whiletheactual
descriptionoffireworksisnottouchedon,createnaturalpicturesliketreesorrain.Thetypeof
fireworkthatcomesfrom“pillarsofcolouredfires”endupturningintoeagles,swansorships.
Thementionofshipsisthefirstunnaturalimagethatappearsinthispassage.However,thethree
imagesallseemtofeelthesame.Abirdinflightandasailingshiphavesimilarpatternsof
movement.Thissectionleadsintoamoreviolentlistofimages.Thereisathunderstormthat
rainsontheonlookers.Whilethisimageisnatural,itisviolentandloudincomparisonwiththe
restoftheimagery,whichareslowandunfolding.Thefinalimageinthepassageisaviolentand
unnaturalimageofspearsandabattlecry.Thisdangerousimageforeshadowstheeventual
violenceandwarthatoccurslaterinthetexts.EventhoughtheimageisofGandalf’sfireworks,
theviolentimplicationofthislastdisplayisthateventheShirewillnotbefreefromtheviolence
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oftheworld.However,atthistimetheunsuspectinghobbitshavenoideaoftheevilthatis
growinginMiddleEarth
Thelanguageinthispassageemphasizesthemagic.Theimageofatree’sleaves
“openinglikeawholespringinamoment”isabeautifulandpoeticdescription,butit
emphasizesthemagicofthemoment.Thesefireworkswouldnotbefoundinthehumanworld:
thewaytheyaredescribedmakesthemseemalive.Theflowersofthetreessmelllikeflowers
andthebirdssingsongs.Thistypeofanimationoflightandsoundisacompleximageto
decipher.However,picturingthebeautyofthesefireworks,addstotheexcitementoftheparty.
Afterthismoment,thereaderunderstandswhythehobbitsweresoexcitedwhenGandalfshows
upwithhiswagon.Throughtheseimages,Tolkienisabletomanipulatetheaudienceintobeing
apartofthestory.Hehassucceededinmakingabelievableworld.
LikeMorris,Tolkienhasmomentsinhistextthatcouldfunctionlikeatapestryora
painting.WhenFrodoandtheotherhobbitsarriveatthehomeofTomBombadil,theyseethe
riverdaughterforthefirsttime.
Inachair,atthefarsideoftheroomfacingtheouterdoor,satawoman.Herlong
yellowhairrippleddownhershoulders;hergownwasgreen,greenasyoung
reeds,shotwithsilverlikebeadsofdew;andherbeltwasofgold,shapedlikea
chainofflagliliessetwiththepaleblueeyesofforgetmenots.Aboutherfeetin
thewidevesselsofgreenandbrownearthenware,whitewaterlilieswerefloating,
sothatsheseemedtobeenthronedinthemidstofapool”(TheFellowship
134).
Thisdescriptioncouldbeofaromanticerapainting;thewomanandsceneisperfectlydescribed.
However,Tolkienusesaspecificcollectionofmetaphorstodescribethiswoman.Ifreadata
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glanceitwouldseemthatsheisinthemiddleofastreamandiscoveredinflowersandplant
life.However,Tolkienismerelyusingthisimagerytodescribewhatthewomanlookslike.Yet,
themetaphorsaresoclearanddistinctthatthefinalimagefallssomewherebetweenmaterialand
natural.Thisis“Goldberry,daughteroftheriver”(TheFellowship
134).Shebothexistsasa
humanesquewomanandariver,simultaneously.Themosthumanelementaboutherisherhair
butTolkienusestheverb“rippled”todescribehowitfallsdownherback.Throughthis
adjective,thehairautomaticallyassumesphysicalcharacteristicsofwaterandmoveslikeafluid.
Thenextdescriptionofhergownisdescribedasreedswithdew.However,thegownissoon
forgottenasthemetaphorbecomescharacterized.Thegownisdescribedasbeing“greenas
youngreeds”,butthenthereedsarethesubjectthatisbeingshotwith“silver,likebeadsof
dew”.Whilethismetaphorisdescribingthedress,thedressisnotthefocusorthesubjectofthe
sentence.
Thenextdescription,ofherbelt,followsthesamelogic;itrunsawaywiththemetaphor.
Thebeltisdescribedasgoldbutthefocusofthesentenceisthemetaphordescribingitsshape.
Again,thebeltisdescribedaslooking“likeachainofflaglilies”andtheseliliesarewhatareset
withblueforgetmenots.Inthisdescription,thereaderdoesnotevenlearnwhatthe
forgetmenotsaremadeoutof;theaudienceisonlyleftwiththemetaphor.Throughthis
phrasingandfocustheactualmaterialofthewomanandheroutfitisnotremembered,norisit
important.Instead,whatisretainedfromthispassagearethemetaphorsthatdescribethese
elements.
Tolkien’smasteryoflanguageisevidentinhowheblendsordinarythingswiththe
fantastical.InsteadofusingjuxtapositionlikeLewis,Tolkienblendsthelinebetweenfantasy
70
andordinarysothatnothingismerelyordinary.Fireworksareaphenomenonthatoccursinthe
humanworld,butGandalf’sfireworksaremuchmorethanahumanevent:thesefireworksare
almostalive.Inthesameway,Goldberry’sclothingisnotasimpledressbutisalsoariver.The
goldworkonherbeltwasmadeinasmithybutatthesametimeitisalsolivingflowers.
Thistypeofmagicalelementisalsotrueaboutlivingthingsthemselves.Thetreesin
MiddleEartharemorealivethanthetreesinthehumanworld.Overthecourseofthetrilogies,
theconsciousnessofthetreesincreasesuntilaforestbecomesanarmyandtheyfighttheorcs.
WhenthefourhobbitsareontheirwaytomeetGandalftheypassthroughaforestthathasa
terrifyingreputationinHobbiton.Thehobbitsslowlybegintofeelcomfortableintheforest
whentheystoptorestbyagreatwillowtreerightbytheRiverWithywindle.Thehobbitsbegin
tofallasleepbutSamwakesandrealizessomethingishappening.Theotherthreehobbitshave
beencapturedbythetree.Thereisnodescriptionofthetreemoving,butthehobbitsunderstand
whatishappeningquickly.MerryandPippinaretrappedinsidethetree,soFrodoandSamlight
asmallfireatthefootofthetreetoforceittoletthehobbitsgo.“Atremorranthroughthe
wholewillow.Theleavesseemedtohissabovetheirheadswithasoundofpainandanger.A
loudscreamcamefromMerry,andfromfarinsidethetreetheyheardPippingiveamuffled
yell”(Tolkien128).Upuntilthispoint,thelivingandmovingofthetreewasonlyexpressedin
whatthehobbitsweresaying.ThehobbitscommentedonwhatthetreewasdoingbutTolkien
didnotdescribewhatwashappeningdirectly.Thispassageisthefirstmomentwhenthe
animationofthetreeisdescribed.Thetree“shudders”andtheleavesseemtomakeasoundof
anger.
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ThistypeofdescriptionisalmostoppositetothedescriptionofGoldberrybecausethe
magicissubtle.Whenmagicisactuallyhappening,Tolkiendoesnotdrawattentiontoit.This
makesthemagicsomewhatordinary.Thecharactersarefocusedonthedangerratherthanthe
movingtree,sotheconsciouselementofthetreeseemsnatural.Thispassageemphasizesthe
blendingofthenormalandmagicalthathelpsTolkienbuildaworldthatisfullybelievablebut
quitespectacularandfantastical.
OralityoftheStory
ThroughTolkien’sancientlanguagespecialty,hewasabletobuildMiddleEarthfrom
thegroundupbeginningwiththelanguages.Throughtheevolutionoftheselanguages,Tolkien
begantodevelopthehistoryoftheworlditself.Becauseofthewayhebuilttheworld,itwould
beimpossibleforTolkien’sstorytonotacquiremanyliteraryelements.Theworlditselfisbased
inlanguageandliterariness.However,therearestillmanyelementsofthetextthatstemfroman
oraltradition.
While,unlikeLewis,Tolkiendoesnothaveaspecifiednarratorcharacter,thereisa
narrativevoicethatdoesdescribeelementsoftheworldtothereader.
Therewererumoursofstrangethingshappeningintheworld
outside...Elves...couldnowbeseenpassingwestward...theywereleaving
Middleearthandwerenolongerconcernedwithitstroubles.Therewere,
however,dwarvesontheroadinunusualnumbers...somespokeinwhispersofthe
EnemyandoftheLandofMordor.Thatnamethehobbitsonlyknewinlegends
ofthedarkpast,likeashadowinthebackgroundoftheirmemories;butitwas
ominousanddisquieting”(TheFellowship
5253).
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Thispassagedefinesthescopeofthenarrator.Becausethenarratorknowswhatthehobbitsare
thinkingandwhattheywhisperabout,itisclearthatthenarratorisomniscient.UnlikeLewis,
thisnarratordoesnotseemtohaveadistinctpersonality.Thereisanelementofdramatowhat
thenarratorissaying,anunderlyingsenseofdoom.However,thereisnospecificcharacteristics.
ItdoesnotseemlikeTolkienintendedthenarratortobeacharacterandformostofthetext,the
narratordoesnotengagewiththereaderatall.Thenarratorsimplyactsasabeingofknowledge
whenoneofthecharactersinthestorycannot.
Mostofthehistoryoftheworldistoldbycharactersinthestory.Gandalfplaysthispart
oftenandthroughhisdiscussionswithFrodo,thereaderlearnsmuchofwhattheyneedtoknow
ofthehistoryoftheworldtounderstandthedangerFrodowillface.Lewisusedanarratorasa
storytellerinTheLion,theWitch,andtheWardrobe
,butmostofthestorytellinginThe
FellowshipoftheRing
happensthroughcharactersinthestory.WhenGandalfistellingFrodo
aboutwhathappenedwhentheDarkLordroselasttime,hebecomesastorytellerwithinastory:
“IfIweretotellyouallthattale,weshouldstillbesittingherewhenSpringhadpassedinto
Winter.ButLastnightItoldyouofSaurontheGreat,theDarkLord.Therumoursthatyouhave
heardaretrue”(TheFellowship
60).GandalftellsFrodoaboutwhathasbeenhappeninginthe
outsideworld,andtellshimthesignificanceofBilbo’sring.Inthisway,Gandalftakestheplace
ofthenarratoranddetailswhatisgoingonintherestoftheworld.Gandalfspeakswithcertainty
aboutwhathappenedduringthelastbattlebutthenhequalifieshisstory:“Oneday,perhaps,I
willtellyouallthetale,oryoushallhearittoldinfullbyonewhoknowsitbest”(The
Fellowship
61).Inthisway,TolkienclarifiesthatGandalfdoesnotknoweverythinginits
entiretyandthatheisstillacharacterinthestory,andnotomniscient.
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Tolkienuseselementsofstorytellersinhiswork,evenifthereisnotaspecific
storytellingcharacter.However,thereareotherelementsoforalstoriesthatneitherMorrisnor
LewisusethatTolkienincorporatesintohistext.Oneoftheseelementsisverse.Therearemany
qualitiesthatversehasthatmakeitperfectfororalstorytelling,themeterandrhymescheme
makeitmuchsimplertomemorize.Mostancientstoriesthatsurvivetodaywerewritteninverse
becausethestorytellershadtomemorizethemratherthanreadthem.“Inaprimaryoralculture
tosolveeffectivelytheproblemofretainingandretrievingcarefullyarticulatedthought,you
havetodoyourthinkinginmnemonicpatterns,shapedforreadyoralrecurrence”(Ong34).
Verseisaperfectexampleofthis;thespecificmeterandrhymeschememakeitmemorableand
easytorecite.Thispatternalsomakesiteasytoemphasizecertainwordsandphrases.Other
techniquescanbeaddedtoversetomakeiteveneasiertomemorizelikealliterationand
repetition.Tolkienusesversebothtoinstilimportantinformationinthereaderandalsoto
emphasizeimportantmomentsandcharacters.
VerseispresentintwoinstancesinTolkien:prophecyandsong.Thesepiecesoftextare
writteninversefortwodifferentreasons.Prophecyiswritteninversebecauseitissomeofthe
mostimportanttextoftheentirebook,boththecharactersandthereaderneedtorememberit.
Also,thistextneedstosoundancientandpowerfulbecauseitisthecoreofthestory.Oneofthe
mostfamouspropheciesfromthistextisabouttheringsofpower:
ThreeRingsfortheElvenKingsunderthesky,
SevenfortheDwarflordsintheirhallsofstone,
NineforMortalMendoomedtodie,
OnefortheDarkLordonhisdarkthrone
IntheLandofMordorwheretheShadowslie.
OneRingtorulethemall,OneRingtofindthem,
OneRingtobringthemallandinthedarknessbindthem
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IntheLandofMordorwheretheShadowslie.(TheFellowship
5960)
AsectionofthisprophecyappearsontheoneringthatFrodopossesses.ThisprovestoGandalf
thatFrodo’sringisindeedtheOneRingthattheprophecymentions.Thisprophecyhasa
rhythmicpatternandarhymescheme.Thefirststanzafollowsabasicrhythmicpatternwhereall
thelinesexceptthethirdhavethesamemeter.Thelastlinehasonelesssyllablebutthereisa
pauseimpliedaftertheword“Lord”thatmakesupforthemissingsyllable.Therefore,thereisa
significantpauseaftertheword“die”,whichthendrawsthefocusandaddsmorbidity.Theother
rhymingpairisalongsyllableof“stone”and“throne”,whichbothsoundheavyandfinal.The
firststanzaisdarkeventhoughthereisametertoit.
Thesecondstanzafollowsmoreexactrules.Thefirstandlastlinearetheexactsameand
sharemeterwiththefirst,second,andfourthlinesofthefirststanza,connectingthetwostanzas.
Thisisemphasizedbythefactthatthefirstiterationofthislineisacontinuationofthefirst
stanza.Thiscontinuationconnectsthetwostanzas,butbecauseofthewaythattheprophecyis
visuallylaidoutthelineseemstostandonitsown.Therepetitionofthislineemphasizesits
significance.ThisisoneofthefirsttimesinthestorythereaderistoldaboutMordor,which
endsupbeingFrodo’sdestination.Therhymingcoupletinthemiddleofthisstanzaisalsovital
anditisemphasizedbythestructureofthepoem.Thesetwolinesstandalonefromtherestof
thepoemformultiplereasons;therhymeschemeconnectsthem,theyarebookendedbythe
sameline,andtheyhavetwodistinctmeteredphrases,whichareseparatedfromtherestofthe
poembyanindent.Inthetextitself,thisphraseisrepeatedbecauseGandalfreadsitoffthering
andthenrepeatstheprophecy.Thisstructureemphasizestheimportanceofthiscouplet.
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Thestructureofthisprophecymakesiteasiertorememberthantherestofthetextinthe
book.Theprophecytellsthestoryoftheringsofpowerandhowtheyrelatetoeachother.These
ringsarethecoreofthestorybecausetheyarehowSaurongainedcontrol.Thereaderneedsto
rememberthesignificanceoftheringtounderstandtherestofthestory.Therefore,thisstoryis
toldoverandoveragain,andthelanguageismemorableverse.Theothertimesverseisusedis
whenthecharacterssingsongs.OneoftheseinstancesiswhenthehobbitsmeetTomBombadil.
TomBombadilisacharacterwhoisnotfullyexplainedinthetext.WhenFrodoasks
Goldberryabouthimshesimplyreplies“Heis”.Shethencontinues:“‘Heis,asyouhaveseen
him,’shesaidinanswertohislook.‘HeistheMasterofwood,water,andhill.’”(The
Fellowship
163).Thisisoneofthemomentswhereamarvelisexplainedjustenoughforthe
readertobeabletofollowtheplot,butnotwellenoughforthereadertofullyunderstandwho
TomBombadilis.Histitle“theMaster”seemstobemoreauthoritativeanddauntingthanTom
is.Tomisashort,stoutmanwhoisconstantlysinging,andyethehaspoweroverthewhole
forest.
BeforethehobbitsmeetTomBombadil,theyhearhim.WhileFrodoandSamare
strugglingtogetMerryandPippinoutofthetree,thehobbitshearsomeonesingingseeming
nonsense:
Heydol!merrydol!ringadongdillo!
Ringadong!hopalong!fallalthewillow!
TomBom,jollyTom,TomBombadillo!
(TheFellowship
156).
Thissongbothmakesthehobbitsnervousandhopefulbecauseitmeanssomeonecanhelpor
someoneiscomingthatcouldharmthem.However,itturnsouttobeTomBombadilwhois
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exactlythepersonwhomtheyneededforhelp.ThesongthatTomsingsseemslikegibberish.
However,Tommentionsthewillowinthissongsoitseemsasthoughheiseitheronhisway
thereorknowsthatthewillowisuptosomething.Thistypeofrhymingsongissungmultiple
timesbyTomandbecomesassociatedwithhim.Thisrepetitionwouldhelpthereaderremember
thisverseandTomhimself.ThisisinterestingbecauseTomdoesnotplayalargeroleinthe
story.
WhileTomisnotimportanttotheoverarchingplotofthestory,heseemstobeimportant
totheessenceoftheworldthatTolkienisbuilding.Tomisafascinatingcharacterwhoseemsto
haveincrediblepowersthatthereaderdoesnotgettosee.Heismasterovertheentireforestand
cancontrolbeingswithhiswords.Tolkienshowsthereaderonesmallmomentthatbeginsto
expresstheextentofhispower.Tomusesmerelyhiswordstocommandthewillowtorelease
MerryandPippin:“‘Youletthemoutagain,OldManWillow!’hesaid.‘Whatbeyouathinking
of?Youshouldnotbewaking.Eatearth!Digdeep!Drinkwater!Gotosleep!Bombadilis
talking!’HethenseizedMerry’sfeetanddrewhimoutofthesuddenlywideningcrack”(The
Fellowship
158).WhileTomseemstohaveamazingpowers,thewaythathespeaksissimple
andheseemstohaveanunsophisticatedaccent.“Whatbeyouathinkingof”hasafew
grammaticalerrorsthatarecommonincertaindialectsthathavetypicallybeenassociatedwith
pastoraltraditions.Theuseoftheword“be”insteadof“are”characterizeshimaspastoralrather
thanurban.Also,wordslikeathinkingareassociatedwithagrarianpeoplewhoknowledgeis
embeddedintheland.
TomBombadilandGandalfseemtohavesimilarpowerswheretheycancommunicate
withanimalswhocannotspeak.Theyalsobothusewordstoexpresstheirpowersandspells.
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GandalfuseswordstocastspellsandTomuseswordstokeephispoweroverthewood.
However,unlikeGandalf,TomspeakssimpleandunsophisticatedEnglish.Hispowerdoesnot
comefromintellectualvocabularyorstudy,hispowercomesdirectlyfromtheland.WhileTom
doesnotnecessarilyplayanimportantpartinthestory,hischaracterisattheheartofwhatThe
LordoftheRings
implies.TheconceptmentionedearlieraboutTolkienusingjuxtaposition
betweenrealandfantasytobuildhisworldistrueaboutTom.Tom’scharacterisincredibly
powerfulbutmostofthetimetheaudiencedoesnotseethat;theysimplyseeashort,stoutman
livingintheforest.
Tom’scharacterdoesnotplayanimportantroleintheplotbuthedoesplayanimportant
roleinthefoundationoftheworlditself.ThemostpowerfulcharactersinthestoryareGandalf,
Elvesandevilbeings.However,itishintedthatTomisaspowerfulassome,ifnotallofthem,
buthispowerisnotinintellectualknowledge.TheElvesareasophisticatedsocietythatlivesin
abeautifulcivilization,whichtheyhavebuiltforthemselves.Muchoftheirpowercomesfrom
intellectualknowledgeandsenses.Gandalf’spowerissimilartothisbecauseheseemstohave
learnedmuchofit.Inaddition,Gandalf’spowerisconnectedtohisstaff,whichhecarries
aroundwithhim.However,becauseofthewaythathespeaks,itseemsthatTomBombadilis
notintellectual.Hispowerdoesnotcomefromastafforahoardofknowledge.Tom’spower
seemsintricatelyconnectedwiththelandforheisthe“Master”oftheforest.Thisconnection
impliesthatnotjustthecreaturesintheworld,buttheworlditselfhassomekindofpower.This
isalsoreflectedinthebehaviorofthetrees.Thepoweroftheworldisasubtlebutintrinsically
importantelementofthewaythatMiddleearthfunctions.Whilethismaybetrueofother
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fantasytexts,itisvitallyimportantwhendiscussingtheworldofTolkienbecauseheusesitasa
foundationoftheworlditself.
Tolkien’stextuseselementsfromliterarytraditionandoraltradition,butunlikethe
writersbeforehim,heusesoralityasatooltorevealinnatequalitiesofandconnectionsbetween
hischaractersandtheworldaroundthem.ThisawarenessisanotherwaythatTolkien’sworkis
moresubtleandscholarlythanotherfantasyworksbeforehim.Heisawareofthewaythat
fantasyfunctionsandisabletousethosecharacteristicstoemphasizedifferentaspectsofhis
world.
ReviewsandLetters
OnOctober31st,1954,W.H.AudenpraisedTolkieninareviewofTheFellowshipof
theRing
.HediscussesthestorybutspecificallynotesthewaythatTolkienfoundedsome
elementsinEnglishlife.“Hobbits,whomaybeonlythreefeethigh,havehairyfeetandpreferto
liveinundergroundhouses,butintheirthinkingandsensibilityresembleverycloselythose
arcadianrusticswhoinhabitsomanyBritishdetectivestories”(“TheHeroisaHobbit”).Auden
impliesapossibleconnectionwithdetectivestories,whichmaynotbeaccurate;however,he
acknowledgesTolkien’suseofEnglishinfluences,whichprovesthatthiselementofTolkienis
crucialtounderstandingthetextasawhole.
AudenalsonoticestheinfluencesofnorthernsagasinTolkien'swriting:“Landscape,
climateandatmospherearenorthern,reminiscentoftheIcelandicsagas”(“TheHeroisa
Hobbit”).ThispassageshowshowinfluentialmythologywastoTolkien’swriting.TheVolsung
sagaisoneofthetextsthatmostinspiredTolkienwhenhewaswritingTheLordoftheRings
.
ThispassagealsohighlightstherelationshipbetweenTolkienandAudenbecausethirteenyears
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afterthisreviewiswritten,TolkiensendsAudenanexcerptofatranslationthathehadworked
onoftheVolsungssaga.“Ihopetosendyou..athingIdidmanyyearsagowhentryingtolearn
theartofwritingalliterativepoetry:anattempttounifythelaysaboutthevolsungsfromthe
ElderEdda,writtenintheoldeightlinefornyroislagstanza”(CollectedLetters
379).Thistext
waspublishedpostmortembyTolkien’ssonChristopherTolkien.ItiscalledTheLegendof
SigurdandGudrún
andwaspublishedin2009byHarperCollins.
AudencontinuesandexpresseshowsuccessfulTolkienwaswithmakingtheworld
believable.“Ofanyimaginaryworldthereaderdemandsthatitseemreal...Mr.Tolkienis
fortunateinpossessinganamazinggiftfornamingandawonderfullyexacteyefordescription;
bythetimeonehasfinishedhisbookoneknowsthehistoriesofhobbits,elves,dwarvesandthe
landscapetheyinhabitaswellasoneknowsone'sownchildhood”(“TheHeroisaHobbit”).The
conceptofliteraturethatseemsrealisrepresentedintheconceptofverisimilitude,which
encapsulatestheideaofsomethingseemingliketruth.Theimpliedconnectionbetween“real”
andmeticulousthatAudenacknowledgesemphasizestheaspectoffantasythatTolkien
practicallycreated.Thevasthistoricalsignificance,languagesandotheraspectsoftheculture
wereexhaustivelyestablishedandworkedthroughbeforeTolkienevenbegantowriteabout
FrodoandBilbo.Itseemsasthoughthestoryofthetextswasbornfromthisextensiveresearch.
Thislevelofdetailhadnotbeenaccomplishedbyfantasywritersbefore,butnowTolkienhasset
thestandardforfuturewritersofHighFantasyinparticular.
Inanotherreview,OrvillePrescottwritesadmiringlyaboutthelanguage,worldand
marvelsbuthecriticizestheworkasawhole.“Thisisaremarkablebook,butitisfarfroma
completelysuccessfulone.Itgrowstedious”(“BookoftheTimes”).ThecriticismthatPrescott
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givesisthatthebookasawholedrags.Hebelievesthatthecharactersdonothaveenoughto
sustaintherestofthetext.OneofhisbiggestcriticismsisthatofFrodowhois“painfully
unheroic”.
Inaddition,PrescottbringsbackathemethatwaspresentinbothMorrisandLewis’s
works:allegory.Inthelastsentenceofhisintroduction,Prescottwrites:“Itprobablyisan
allegory,also,foritcontainsplentyofpersonagesandeventsthatcaneasilybeinterpreted
symbolically”(“BookoftheTimes”).Morrisstruggledwitharevieweroverthistypeof
accusation.InMorris’smind,ifthetextisnotclearlyanallegorytheniteitherisnotallegoryor
thewriterhasfailed.Clearly,PrescottdoesnotfeellikeTolkien’sworkwassuccessful,butthat
wasnotbecausealackofclearallegory.Therefore,ifMorrisisrightthenthetextmustnotbe
allegory.
UnlikeMorris,Tolkiendoesnotreferenceanyreviewsinhisletters.Mostoftheletters
thatwerecollectedwereaddressedtohisson,Christopher.WhenTolkiendiscussesTheLordof
theRings
inhislettershetypicallyisdescribingwhathasrecentlyhappened.Tolkienhasa
tendencytospeakaboutthetextandthecharactersasifhehasnocontroloverthem.Inaletter
writtentohissonTolkienwrites:
Anewcharacterhascomeonthescene(IamsureIdidnotinventhim,Ididnot
evenwanthim,thoughIlikehim,buttherehecamewalkingoutofthewoodsof
Ithilien):Faramir,thebrotherofBoromirandheisholdingupthe‘catastrophe’
byalotofstuffaboutthehistoryofGondorandRohan(withsomeverysound
reflectionsnodoubtonmartialgloryandtrueglory):butifhegoesonmuchmore
alotofhimwillhavetoberemovedtotheappendiceswherealreadysome
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fascinatingmaterialonthehobbitTobaccoindustryandtheLanguagesofthe
Westhavegone”(79).
Inthissection,FaramirseemstohavemorecontroloverthestorythanTolkienhas.Heseemsto
becontrollingthe‘catastrophe’,theexacteventTolkienisreferencingisunclear.Itmaybe
Frodo’sentranceintomordor.Faramirispreventingthiseventwithhisendlesschatter.This
givessomeinsightintohowTolkienwasabletocomeupwithsomuchcontentandsucha
detailedhistoryinboththetextandtheappendix.ThisalsoshowsthatTolkienisnotfocusedon
theplotofthestory,infactwhenhementionstheplothehastypicallybeguntoveerofftopic
andisexplainingordiscussingsomethingthatdoesnotrelatedirectlytotheplot.Thistypeof
writingseemstohaveaddedimmenselytothemeticulousdetailofMiddleearthforeachnew
characterbringsmorehistorywiththem.
ThewaythatTolkiendiscusseshischaractersispresentthroughouthisletters.Inanother
letterhewrites:“OnthewholeSamisbehavingwell,andlivinguptorepute.HetreatsGollum
ratherlikeArieltoCaliban”(Tolkien77).Thispersonificationofcharacterscirclesbacktothe
innateideathateverythinginhistextisbothordinaryandfantastic.Tolkiendiscusseshis
charactersliketheyarealiveandhehasnocontroloverthem,andyethealsodiscusseshowhis
writingprocessisgoingandtellshissonwhatisgoingtohappennext.Tolkien’sblendingofreal
andfantasticbleedsfromhisstoryintohiswritingprocess.
Conclusion
Tolkien’slawsofexistenceareclearlydefinedinhistextandaremeticulouslydetailed.
Tolkienspentcopiousamountsoftimeworkingthroughthehistoryandlanguagesof
Middleearth.Therearemomentswhentherulesoftheworldaredirectlyexplained,butmostof
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thelogicoftheworldisgainedthroughtheexperiencesofthecharactersandthelonghistorical
descriptionsoftheworld’scomplicatedhistory.Thehistoryistoldbycharactersinthestory
ratherthananarrator.Thischoice,makesthetextmorefocusedontheworldthantheplot.
Throughthistechniqueandotherways,Tolkienusestheoralnatureoffantasytoestablish
elementsoftheworld.
ThewaythatTolkienusesimageryseemstobeanevolutionfrombothMorrisand
Lewis.Morrisusedimagerytoestablishtheinherentworthofmarvelsandsohisimagerystood
onitsownanddidnotaddtotheplotoragranderidea.Lewis’simagerywasusedasatoolto
establishthejuxtapositioninthestoryandcreatedthefantasticthroughthisimagery.Tolkien
thenusedtheseformsofimageryandmeldedthehumanworldandthefantasticalworldinto
eachother.TheimagesinTolkien’stextareacombinationofthefantasticandreal.Inthisway,
Tolkienusesadifferenttechniquetousetherealworldashisfoundationoflogic.Insteadof
placingfireworksinanabnormalsetting,likeLewiswould,hetweakstheinherentnatureof
fireworks,makingthemfantastic.
Becauseofhisscholarlyapproach,Tolkienseemstouseelementsoffantasyconsciously
toestablishtheworldhewantsclearlyanddistinctly.LikeMorris,Tolkienisnotnecessarily
focusedontheplotofthetext,thoughhesucceedsinmakingitclear.Tolkienismorefocusedon
theworlditself.Thisisevidencedbytheamountofappendicesthathewrote,whichmostlydoes
notdirectlyrelatetothespecificplotofthetrilogy.ThegoalofTolkien’stextwasnottowritean
entertainingstorybuttosuccessfullyfulfillhissubcreatordesiresanddevelopabeautifuland
valuableworld.ThisiswhatOrvillePrescottwasmissingwhenhereadTheFellowshipofthe
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Ring
,theplotisnotperfectbecausetheplotisnotthepoint.Thepointistheelationthatonegets
whenexercisingtheirimagination.
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Conclusion
ModernFantasy101:ImaginationUnlimited
ThepurposeofthisprojectistodemonstratetotheacademiccommunitythatModern
Fantasyisworthyofstudyandexploration.IbecamealiteraturemajorbecauseIaminlovewith
stories:storiesthatmakeyouloserealitybecauseoftheirbeautyanddetermination.SometimesI
canfindthesestoriesinthehistoricalorrealisticfictionsectionofthelibrarybutmostlythey
existinfantasy.However,whilethesetextsaremypassionIwasnotgiventheopportunityto
incorporatethemintomylearningexperience.ItookeveryclassIcouldthatapproachedthis
topic:Shakespeare,NewDirectionsinContemporaryFiction,PostFantasy,Fabulismandthe
NewGothicetc.ThelastofwhichistheclosestIcametostudyingthetextsthatIlove.Inall
fouryearsatBard,therewasnotasingleclassthatinvestigatedthetextsthatIwishedtostudy.
Thisprojectwasmywaytopresenttotheacademiccommunitythatnotonlycouldthesetextsbe
addedtotheacademiccannonbuttheyshouldbe.Thebestwaytoprovethiswouldbeto
demonstratehowthistypeofliteraturecanbetaughtandunderstoodinanacademicsetting;
therefore,welcometoModernFantasy101:ImaginationUnlimited.
Overthedurationofthesemesterwewillbereadingmultiplefantasyworksaswellas
criticalessaysandothersecondarysources.Themajortextswillinclude:SirGawainandthe
GreenKnight,
TheWellatWorld’sEnd
byWilliamMorris;TheLion,theWitchandthe
Wardrobe
byC.S.Lewis;TheFellowshipoftheRing
byJ.R.R.Tolkienaswellasexcerptsfrom
TheNameoftheWind
byPatrickRothfuss.WewillalsobereadingexcerptsfromHomer’s
Odyssey
,TheFaerieQueene
byEdmundSpenser,Beowulf
,TheLegendofSigurdandGudrun
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translatedbyTolkien,andMaryShelley’sFrankenstein.
Thecriticismwewillbereadingwill
include,butnotlimitedto,essaysfromTheMonstersandtheCritics:AndOtherEssays
by
J.R.R.Tolkien,OfOtherWorlds
byC.S.Lewis,AdamBede
byGeorgeEliot,“Defenseof
Poetry”byPercyShelleyandothers.Overthecourseofthissemester,wewillinvestigatehowto
analyzeafantasticaltext,whattolookforandthetechniquestheauthorsuse.
Forclasstoday,Ihadyouread“OnFairyStories”byTolkien.Tolkiencloseswith
discussingthejoythatcomesfromreadingfantasy.Hewrites“Probablyeverywritermakinga
secondaryworld,afantasy,everysubcreator,wishesinsomemeasuretobearealmaker,or
hopesthatheisdrawingonreality:hopesthatthepeculiarqualityofthissecondaryworld(ifnot
allthedetails)arederivedfromReality,orarefallingintoit”(155).Hethencontinues“The
peculiarqualityofthe‘joy’insuccessfulFantasycanthusbeexplainedasasuddenglimpseof
theunderlyingrealityortruth”(155).Doesthejoyoffantasycomefromaglimpseofthe
nonfantastic?Doesthedelightoffantasystemfromsmallusesofthetruth?Fantasymaynot
needrealitytoexist,butdoesitneedrealitytobeenjoyed?Theanswerstothesequestionsare
neitheryesnorno.
ThevalueoffantasystemsfromitsuseofimagerycreatedbytheimaginationasTolkien
discusses.Therefore,atitscore,fantasyisseparatefromreality.However,theenjoymentof
fantasymaynotbeseparatefromreality.Someonecanenjoyreadingfantasybecauseitis
differentthanrealityortheycanenjoyreadingfantasybecauseitpresentspossibilitiesthatmay
notexistinreality.Unlikeothergenres,thebeautyoffantasyliesintheimage:alamppostinthe
middleofawood.Now,Iaskyou,doesthebeautyofthisimagecomefromthepossibilityofthe
87
worldinwhichthisexistsordoesitcomefromthejoyofseeingtwoimagesthatyouarefamiliar
withplacedtogetherinawayyouhaveneverseenbefore?
Inthisclasswewillanalyzedifferenttechniquesusedtocreatefantasticalworlds.We
willdiscussModernFantasy’srelationshipwiththeoraltradition.Wewillanalyzetheauthor’s
useofimagesintheirtextsandwewillcompilealistofqualitiesnecessarytomakeafantastical
worldsuccessful.Afteracknowledgingthebeautyinherentinthesefantasticaltextsand
understandingthemasteryneededtosuccessfullycreateoneofthesestories,onequestionkeeps
risingtothesurface.Throughoutthesemester,wewillstrivetoanswerthisquestion:isfantasy
enjoyablebecauseitisanalternativetorealityorbecausethroughfantasyweglimpse“the
underlyingrealityortruth”oftheworldwelivein?
89
FiguresReferenced
Figure1:WoodPrint:frontpieceofTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
byWilliamMorris.ImagedesignedbyMorrisand
printedatKelmscottpressin1894.
90
Figure2:WoodPrint.Chapter9pg.52ofTheWoodBeyondtheWorld
byWilliamMorris.Imagedesigned
byMorrisandprintedbytheKelmscottPress1894.
91
Figure3:OilonCanvas.Ophelia
byJohnWilliamWaterhouse1910.
92
Figure4:Illustration.EdmundmeetstheWitch
byPaulineBaynes1950.
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